Biology Final Study Guide PDF

Fall Semester Final Study Guide Exam 1 (Ch. 1, 2) 1. Effects of pH on proteins Q: How does pH affect proteins? A: pH can alter the shape of proteins by affecting the ionic bonds and hydrogen bonds in their structure. Extreme pH levels can denature proteins, making them...

Fall Semester Final Study Guide Exam 1 (Ch. 1, 2) 1. Effects of pH on proteins Q: How does pH affect proteins? A: pH can alter the shape of proteins by affecting the ionic bonds and hydrogen bonds in their structure. Extreme pH levels can denature proteins, making them lose their functional shape. 2. Characteristics of living things Q: What are the defining characteristics of living things? A: Living things exhibit growth, reproduction, responsiveness to stimuli, metabolism, homeostasis, heredity, and cellular structure. 3. Central dogma Q: What is the central dogma of molecular biology? A: The central dogma describes the flow of genetic information from DNA to RNA to protein: DNA → RNA → Protein. 4. Producers vs consumers Q: What is the difference between producers and consumers? A: Producers (autotrophs) create their own food through processes like photosynthesis, while consumers (heterotrophs) obtain energy by eating other organisms. 5. Water properties Q: What are some unique properties of water? A: Water has high surface tension, cohesion, adhesion, a high specific heat, and is an excellent solvent due to hydrogen bonding. 6. Organic compounds  Q: What makes a compound organic? A: Organic compounds contain carbon and are typically associated with living organisms (e.g., carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, nucleic acids). 7. Isotopes Q: What are isotopes? A: Isotopes are variants of the same element with the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons, which results in different atomic masses. 8. Protein structure Q: What are the levels of protein structure? A: The four levels are primary (amino acid sequence), secondary (α-helix or β- sheet), tertiary (3D folding), and quaternary (multiple polypeptide chains). 9. Acids vs bases Q: What is the difference between an acid and a base? A: Acids release hydrogen ions (H⁺) in solution, while bases release hydroxide ions (OH⁻). 10. Hydrolysis vs Dehydration synthesis Q: What is the difference between hydrolysis and dehydration synthesis? A: Hydrolysis breaks bonds by adding water, while dehydration synthesis forms bonds by removing water. 11. Experimental design (independent vs dependent variables) Q: What are the independent and dependent variables in an experiment? A: The independent variable is the one being manipulated, while the dependent variable is the one being measured or observed. 12. Adaptation Q: What is adaptation? A: Adaptation refers to a trait or behavior that improves an organism's ability to survive and reproduce in its environment. 13. Prokaryotes vs eukaryotes  Q: What is the difference between prokaryotes and eukaryotes? A: Prokaryotes lack a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles, while eukaryotes have both. 14. Negative vs positive control Q: What is the difference between a negative and positive control in an experiment? A: A negative control ensures no effect when no treatment is applied, and a positive control ensures that the experiment can detect the expected outcome. Exam 2 1. Ideal conditions for plant cell/animal cell (tonicity) Q: What are the ideal conditions for plant and animal cells in terms of tonicity? A: Plant cells are ideal in hypotonic solutions, while animal cells are best in isotonic solutions. 2. Diffusion Q: What is diffusion? A: Diffusion is the movement of molecules from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration. 3. Factors that affect enzymes Q: What factors influence enzyme activity? A: Temperature, pH, enzyme concentration, substrate concentration, and presence of inhibitors or activators. 4. Enzyme structure and function Q: What is the function of enzymes in biochemical reactions? A: Enzymes speed up reactions by lowering the activation energy, with the substrate binding to the active site in the induced fit model. 5. Animal cells vs plant cells (structure) Q: What are the main structural differences between animal and plant cells?  A: Plant cells have a cell wall, chloroplasts, and large central vacuoles, while animal cells have centrioles and lysosomes. 6. Endergonic vs exergonic Q: What is the difference between endergonic and exergonic reactions? A: Endergonic reactions require energy input, while exergonic reactions release energy. 7. Structures found in all cells Q: What structures are found in all cells? A: All cells have a plasma membrane, cytoplasm, ribosomes, and DNA. 8. What happens to plant/animal cell in hypertonic, hypotonic, and isotonic conditions? Q: What happens to plant and animal cells in these conditions? A: In a hypertonic solution, cells lose water and shrink. In a hypotonic solution, cells gain water and may burst. In an isotonic solution, cells maintain their shape. 9. Organelle functions Q: What are the functions of common organelles? A: Mitochondria generate ATP, the endoplasmic reticulum synthesizes proteins and lipids, the Golgi apparatus processes and sorts proteins, and the nucleus stores genetic information. 10. Why are cells small? Q: Why must cells remain small? A: Small cells have a higher surface area-to-volume ratio, allowing for more efficient exchange of materials. 11. Membrane structure Q: What is the structure of the cell membrane? A: The cell membrane is a phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins, cholesterol, and carbohydrate chains, which allows selective permeability. 12. Domains of Life  Q: What are the three domains of life? A: The three domains are Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya. Exam 3 1. What is reduced vs what is oxidized in cellular respiration & photosynthesis? Q: In cellular respiration and photosynthesis, what is oxidized and what is reduced? A: In cellular respiration, glucose is oxidized and oxygen is reduced. In photosynthesis, water is oxidized and carbon dioxide is reduced. 2. Electron transport chain purpose Q: What is the purpose of the electron transport chain? A: The electron transport chain generates ATP by transferring electrons through protein complexes, creating a proton gradient that drives ATP synthesis. 3. Where do events of cellular respiration occur? Q: Where do the stages of cellular respiration take place? A: Glycolysis occurs in the cytoplasm, the Krebs cycle in the mitochondria, and the electron transport chain in the inner mitochondrial membrane. 4. Oxidation vs reduction Q: What is oxidation and reduction? A: Oxidation is the loss of electrons, while reduction is the gain of electrons. 5. Autotrophic vs heterotrophic Q: What is the difference between autotrophic and heterotrophic organisms? A: Autotrophs produce their own food (e.g., through photosynthesis), while heterotrophs obtain food by consuming other organisms. 6. Where do light reactions vs Calvin cycle occur? Q: Where do the light reactions and Calvin cycle occur in photosynthesis? A: The light reactions occur in the thylakoid membranes of the chloroplasts, while the Calvin cycle occurs in the stroma. 7. Products of light reactions Q: What are the products of the light reactions in photosynthesis? A: The products are ATP, NADPH, and oxygen. 8. Wavelengths best for photosynthesis Q: What wavelengths of light are best for photosynthesis? A: Red and blue wavelengths are most effective for photosynthesis. 9. ATP Q: What is ATP and its role in cells? A: ATP (adenosine triphosphate) is the primary energy currency of the cell, providing energy for cellular processes. 10. How are cellular respiration and photosynthesis related? Q: How are cellular respiration and photosynthesis connected? A: The products of photosynthesis (glucose and oxygen) are the reactants for cellular respiration, while the products of cellular respiration (carbon dioxide and water) are the reactants for photosynthesis. 11. Cristae Q: What is the role of cristae in mitochondria? A: Cristae increase the surface area for ATP production during cellular respiration. 12. Absorption spectrum for chlorophyll Q: What is the absorption spectrum for chlorophyll? A: Chlorophyll absorbs light most efficiently in the blue and red regions of the spectrum, but reflects green light. 13. Conditions for stomatal closing/opening Q: What conditions influence stomatal opening and closing? A: Stomata open in the presence of light and high humidity, and close in the presence of Exam 4 1. Double Helix Q: What is the structure of the DNA double helix? A: The DNA double helix consists of two strands of nucleotides twisted around each other. Each strand is made of a backbone of sugar (deoxyribose) and phosphate groups, with nitrogenous bases (adenine, thymine, cytosine, guanine) pairing across the strands: A pairs with T, and C pairs with G. 2. Chromosomes in Human Cells Q: How many chromosomes are in normal human diploid and haploid cells? A: Humans have 46 chromosomes in diploid cells (23 pairs). Haploid cells, such as gametes (sperm and eggs), contain 23 chromosomes (one from each pair). 3. Percentages of Nucleotides Q: How can the percentages of nucleotides in DNA be determined if one nucleotide's percentage is known? A: According to Chargaff's rules, the percentage of adenine (A) will equal the percentage of thymine (T), and the percentage of cytosine (C) will equal the percentage of guanine (G). For example, if adenine is 30%, thymine will also be 30%, and the remaining 40% will be split equally between cytosine and guanine (20% each). 4. Purpose of Mitosis Q: What is the purpose of mitosis? A: Mitosis is a type of cell division that results in two genetically identical daughter cells, maintaining the same chromosome number as the parent cell. It is used for growth, repair, and asexual reproduction. 5. Base Pairing Rules Q: What are the base pairing rules in DNA? A: In DNA, adenine (A) pairs with thymine (T), and cytosine (C) pairs with guanine (G). These pairings are held together by hydrogen bonds. 6. Transcription & Translation Q: What is the process of transcription and translation? A: o Transcription: The process by which a segment of DNA is copied into mRNA. o Translation: The process by which the mRNA is decoded by ribosomes to synthesize a protein. 7. Point Mutation – Base Substitution Q: What is a point mutation and base substitution? A: A point mutation is a change in a single nucleotide in the DNA sequence. A base substitution is a type of point mutation where one nucleotide is replaced by another, which can lead to changes in the protein sequence. 8. Nonsense Mutation Q: What is a nonsense mutation? A: A nonsense mutation occurs when a base substitution changes a codon into a stop codon, prematurely ending protein synthesis. 9. Mitotic Spindle Q: What is the role of the mitotic spindle? A: The mitotic spindle is a structure made of microtubules that helps separate chromosomes during mitosis by attaching to the centromeres of chromosomes and pulling them toward opposite poles of the cell. 10. Cancer Q: How is cancer related to cell division? A: Cancer results from uncontrolled cell division due to mutations in genes that regulate the cell cycle. These mutations lead to the formation of tumors and the potential for metastasis. 11. Leading vs Lagging Strand Q: What is the difference between the leading and lagging strands in DNA replication? A: The leading strand is synthesized continuously in the direction of the replication fork, while the lagging strand is synthesized in short segments (Okazaki fragments) in the opposite direction. 12. Interphase Q: What happens during interphase? A: Interphase is the phase of the cell cycle when the cell is not dividing. It consists of three stages: o G1 (Gap 1): Cell growth and normal functions. o S (Synthesis): DNA replication. o G2 (Gap 2): Preparation for mitosis. 13. Gene Q: What is a gene? A: A gene is a segment of DNA that contains the instructions for synthesizing proteins or RNA molecules. 14. DNA vs. RNA Q: What are the main differences between DNA and RNA? A:  o DNA is double-stranded, contains deoxyribose sugar, and uses thymine (T) as a base. o RNA is single-stranded, contains ribose sugar, and uses uracil (U) instead of thymine (T). 15. Binary Fission Q: What is binary fission? A: Binary fission is a form of asexual reproduction in prokaryotes (e.g., bacteria), where a single cell divides into two genetically identical daughter cells. 16. Purpose of DNA Replication Q: What is the purpose of DNA replication? A: DNA replication is necessary for cell division to ensure that each daughter cell receives an exact copy of the genetic material. 17. Mutation Q: What is a mutation? A: A mutation is a change in the DNA sequence, which can result from errors during DNA replication, environmental factors, or other causes. Mutations can be beneficial, neutral, or harmful. 18. Codon Chart Q: How do you use the codon chart? A: The codon chart is used to decode mRNA codons into amino acids during translation. Each set of three nucleotides (codon) corresponds to a specific amino acid. Final Unit 1. Purpose of Meiosis Q: What is the purpose of meiosis? A: Meiosis reduces the chromosome number by half to produce haploid gametes (sperm and eggs) for sexual reproduction. 2. Natural Selection Q: What is natural selection? A: Natural selection is the process by which organisms with traits better suited to their environment are more likely to survive and reproduce, passing those traits on to the next generation. 3. Why Must Gametes Be Haploid? Q: Why must gametes be haploid? A: Gametes must be haploid (with half the number of chromosomes) so that when fertilization occurs, the resulting zygote has a full set of chromosomes (diploid). 4. Homozygous vs. Heterozygous Q: What is the difference between homozygous and heterozygous? A: o Homozygous: Having two identical alleles for a gene (e.g., AA or aa). o Heterozygous: Having two different alleles for a gene (e.g., Aa). 5. Phenotype vs. Genotype Q: What is the difference between phenotype and genotype? A: o Genotype: The genetic makeup (alleles) of an organism. o Phenotype: The physical expression or traits of an organism resulting from the genotype. 6. Sex-Linked Traits Q: What are sex-linked traits? A: Sex-linked traits are genes found on the sex chromosomes (X or Y). They are often inherited differently in males and females due to the difference in sex chromosome composition (XY in males, XX in females). 7. Simple Dominant vs. Recessive (Monohybrid Crosses) Q: What is a monohybrid cross, and how does it relate to dominant and recessive alleles? A: A monohybrid cross examines the inheritance of a single trait. Dominant alleles mask the expression of recessive alleles. The offspring's genotype and phenotype ratios can be predicted using a Punnett square. 8. Alleles Q: What are alleles? A: Alleles are different versions of a gene that can exist in different forms (dominant or recessive). 9. Determining Gamete Combinations from Parental Genotypes Q: How do you determine the possible gamete combinations from parental genotypes? A: Use the Punnett square or the foil method to determine all possible allele combinations for gametes based on the parental genotypes. 10. Blood Type Crosses (Multiple Alleles) Q: How are blood types inherited? A: Blood type is controlled by multiple alleles (A, B, and O). A and B are codominant, and O is recessive. Use Punnett squares to predict the inheritance of blood types. 11. Predicting Probability of Offspring Outcomes Q: How do you predict the probability of offspring traits? A: Use Punnett squares to calculate the probabilities of different genotypes and phenotypes in the offspring based on the parental genotypes. 12. Evolution Q: What is evolution, and how does natural selection contribute to it? A: Evolution is the change in the genetic makeup of populations over time. Natural selection drives evolution by favoring individuals with advantageous traits, leading to those traits becoming more common in