Biology 🔬🌱 PDF Study Guide

Ease.ir dilrietfiifr'sit isbiology thescientificstudyoforganism Characteristics of organism carry outvitalfunctions necessaryfor maintaining life basedonthesecharacteristics biologists distinguishorganismsfromnon livingth...

Ease.ir dilrietfiifr'sit isbiology thescientificstudyoforganism Characteristics of organism carry outvitalfunctions necessaryfor maintaining life basedonthesecharacteristics biologists distinguishorganismsfromnon livingthings Reproduce produceoffspringsthree reproduction offspringgrows 118 2 9 andgrow reproduces somematerial Obtainfood foodintheprocess Obtain ofnutritionplantsmakefoodbyphotosynthesis 18 rides and respire Detect and respond ability is calledirritability enables organisms to findfood some r broken downtorelease tostimuli more matesescapefrom dangerinvolve movement energythrurespir Excrete tomaintain a called homeostasis providesa stableenvironment forfunctioning ofcells excretioncontributesbyremoving metabolicwaste f ff constantinternal environment it Importance ofstudyingbiology 1 developappreciation of andrespectfor allorganisms andthe environment 2 Learninghowbiologists developtheirideasand designing our ownscientificinvestigationshelpdevelopourabilityto think solveproblemsscientifically 3 helpus betterunstand healthissues environmental issuesand manysocialissues helpusmake lifestylechoicesandinforme decisions Chapter 5 5 1 Thefood requirements of humans food provides us energy for supportingdaily activities keepwarm 1,2 raw materials for growthand repair health substances that r important for maintaining 4,5 7 food substances I carbohydrates proteins T.IEjsfibre water Carbohydrates r organic substancesmadeof carbon hydrogen oxygenatoms H is 2 1 Carbohydrates monosaccharides disaccharides polysaccharides honosaccharides IL digest twomonosaccharides many egmaltose egglucose eg fa n Disaccharides polysaccharides formed bygoing monosaccharide molecules in a reactioncalled condensation brokendown in areactioncalled hydrolysis a watermolecule is added Monosaccharides disaccharides calledsugars tastesweet solvable in water Example of sugar Found in Glucose Fruits honey Monosaccharides Fructose Fruits honey Galactose fee her Ltisminisaccharide Maltose Germinating disaccharides composed of two barley r reducingsugars glucose molecules detectedusing Disaccharides sucrose sugar cane sugar test Benedict's composed of aglucose beetstable sugar except sucrose and a fructosemolecules Lactose m um ccomposed of a glucose like cheese and and a galactosemolecules yoghurt Polysaccharides very largemolecules don'ttastesweet insoluble inwater egstarch glycogencellulose made up of glucosemolecules starch majorstorageform of carbohydratesugar in plants abundantinfood majorenergy Glycogen storage in animals liver muscles source Cellulose majorcomponent of plant cellwalls Functions of carbohydrates  gy dy Monosaccharides r directlyabsorbed and used to provide energy egglucose is brokendown in respiration to releaseenergy Disaccharides starch need to be brokendown Chydrolysis into monosaccharides for absorpt then used to releaseenergy eachgram of carbohydrate provides 17 1 kilojoulesCks ofenergy 2 Asenergy reserves whencarbohydrates r taken in excess some r converted toglycogen in liver or muscles condensation stored as energyreserves Glycogen r brokendown intoglucose to provideenergywhenhe 3 As a source ofdietary fibre cellulosecan'tbedigested in ourbody is an important source of dietary fibrethatpreventsconstipa Background chemistry Reducing sugars involvetransferofelectronsbetween substances substancesthat loseelectrons r said to be oxidized gainelectron r said to be reduced loseselectrons it's oxidized y Y gains electrons reduced monosaccharides disaccharides exceptsucrose loseelectronsreadily to othersubstances r called reducingsugars cuzthey cause other substances to bereduced Test for carbonhydrates Test for glucose useglucosetestpaper Dipend ofglucosetestpaperintofoodsample changeincolourindicatespresence ofglucose Testforreducingsugar Benedict'stest Addanequalvolumeof Benedict'ssolution tothefoodsampleandboil in waterbath for5min a brick redprecipantindicates presence ofreducingsugars If excess Benedict'ssolutionisaddedthe amountofprecipitateformed is proportional to amountofreducingsugar can becomparedbycomparing amount of precipant form Test for starch iodinetest add iodinesolutionfrombrownto blue blackindicatespresence ofstarch Lipids carbon g likecarbohydrates lipid are also organicsubstancesmade of hydrogen H Oratio ismuchgreaterthan2 1 2 oxygen insoluble inwaterbutsoluble inorganicsolvents Triglycerides mostcommontypes oflipidsformedfromoneglyceroland3fattyacidsbycondensation  y y y s glycerol 555 5 a triglyceride 3 Ho solidatroomtemp rcommonlycalled fats mainlycomefromanimals liquidtriglycerides at roomtemp r coulled oils mainlyfromplants Functions oflipids A Asenergyreserves lipids rstored inadiposetissues inbodyasenergy reserves adiposetissues r found undertheskin as subcutaneous fat oraroundinternalorgans can bebroken down to provideenergy B Asshockabsorber Fatstoredinadiposetissuesaroundinternalorgansactsas shockabsorber toprotect internalorgans C Asheatinsulator subcutaneous fat acts as aheatinsulator to reduceheatlossfrombody D Involved inabsorptiontransportstorageoflipid solublevitaminsCegvitaminsAandD E producesomehormonescegsexhormones F phospholipids r major component ofcellmembrane Test for lipids greasespottest detectlipidsinfood ie It peer andletitdry isformed disappe if bylipids Proteins organic substances made of carbonhydrogenoxygennitrogenatoms somecontainsulphuratoms Aminoacids r thebasic buildingblocks of protein sidechain manydifferentaminoacid differentside chain twoaminoacidjointgh into a dipeptidebycondensation linkbetween 2aminoacid is calledpeptide bond dipeptidecanbebroken down byhydrolysis aging 9 19  furtheraddition ofaminoacidsto a dipeptideforms a polypeptide polypeptidecoils folds into 3 dimensional structure due to attration forcebetweenaminoacidsandpolypeptide someproteinhave 1 polypeptidewhile others rformed bytwomorepolypeptidesCeghaemoglobinconsistsof 4 polypeptides amino acidsequence of polypeptide determinesfinalshape of protein in bodythere r manydifferentproteins andhaveuniquesequence of aminoacidsthusuniqueshapethisuniqueshapeallowsdifferent proteinsto perfo differentfunctions in ourbody eg enzymeshaveuniqueactivesites which fit specific substrates changeshapeof activesitescause enzyme to losetheirfunction otherprotein like receptors antibodieshaveuniqueshapesthat r important to function proteins in our body r madeof 20amino acids 12 canbeproduced in ourbody nonessentialaminoacid 2498895 20aminoacids that remaining essentialaminoacid Amino acid can beobtained fromfood likemeatfish eggsbeansmilk dairy which r richinprotein Protein wetake r brokendown into aminoacids absorbed Functions of proteins asgrowthandrepair bodytissue muscles skull r madeofproteins usedforgrowth repair b To produceenzymes antibodieshaemoglobinandsomehormones c As energy source If carbohydrates fat storedinbody r usedup aminoacids maybe brokendowntoreleaseenergyasthelast energy reserve Eachgramofprotein provides18.215of energy Deficiency lackofproteinmayleadto deficiencydisease calledkwashiorkorChildrengrowpoorlyandhave weakmusclessw abdomen cuz of accumulationoftissuefluid commonindevelopingcountrieswheremeatfisheggs milk rlimit Test proteintestpaperdetect proteinsinfood diptestendof proteintestpaper into foodsamplechangeincolour of testendindicates presenceofprotein Minerals needed insmallamounts noenergyvalue importantin regulating many metabolic reactions building bodytissue Calcium iron sodium iodine potassium phosphorus and minerals Calcium Functions  I n involved inblood clotting muscle contraction sendingmessages in nervoussystem Deficiency lead to rickets have softbones ifricketsisnotcorrected if ricketsisnot corrected bonesmayremainbent and childwill notgrow tonormalheight Aspplage calciumis lost leadingtoloss ofbone mass Osteoporosis is a diseasewhichbonebecomes porous andbrittle easilybroken enoughcalcium can helpslowdown lossofbone mass Toolittle calcium increasesrisk of osteoporosis 2 Iron Functions component of haemoglobin moleculeinred bloodcellsthatcarries oxygenaroundthebody Deficiency anaemia mayfainteasily notenoughhaemoglobin in redbloodcellstocarry oxygento brain sources Beef liver beans Vitamins organicfoodsubstancesneededinsmallamounts no energy value helpregulate metabolic reactions Lipid soluble watersoluble vitaminA Desk absorbed w lipids If Eainlarge can bestoredinlarge Excess r excretedthru urination amounts in our body important to take inregularly If too largeamounts losteasilyduringfoodhandling cooking as theydissolve they accumulate causeharm in water to thebody C iseasilydestroyed whenexposed to hightemp oxygen Vitamin A needed forformationof a pigmentinretina pigment is necessary forvisionin dimlight importfor keeping cornea skin lining ofalimentary canal breathing systemhealthy Deficiency poor vision in dimlightnightblindness drying cornea skin easy infection oflining oflungs trachea Sources Fishliver oils eggs milk orange pigment called carotene converted to vitaminA in our liver Vitamin D promotesabsorptionofcalcium phosphate which r essentialfor keeping bones Teethstrong importantfor hardening ofbones development in teeth Deficiency rickets in children Sources skinunder sunlight nÉ to rowth repair ofconnective tissuewhichhelp keepbodystructure inplace neededfor healingwounds promotestheabsorption ofironfrom plant food helpimmunesystemworkproperly to protect bodyfromdisease Deficiency scurvey weak bleedinggums poor healing ofwounds smallredspotsonskin joint pain sources freshvegetables fruits richinvitamin C Test for vitaminC DCPPtest can becarried out to detect vitamin C infood 1 Addfoodsample to DCPIPsolutiondrop bydropw gentleshaking 2 Decourization of blue Depipsolutionindicatespresence ofvitamin C 3 UseDCPIP solutiontocomparevitaminC content of differentfoods higheramount ofvitaminC into thefewer dropsoffood r neededto declourizethesamevolumeof DCPIPsolution Dietaryfibre Dietaryfibre is an organicfood substance fibre mainlyconsist of cellulosefromplantcellwal 2 maintypes soluble insoluble insoluble dietary Functions insolubledietarydoesnot provideenergy for ourbody passesthru gut undigested since bodydoesn'thave enzymes to digest helpsfaecespass out adding bulk tofood to stimulateperistalsis holding a lot ofwater to makefaecessofter  Deficiency constipation low dietary fibre increasedriskofcolorectalcancer sources plantfood Water no energy value butessential to life act as reactant insome chemicalreactions provides a mediumfor chemicalreaction medium of transport act as cooling agent tohelpregulate bodytemperature is majorcomponent ofmany tubricating fluids water is mainly obtained fromfood drinks respiration in bodycells produces smallamountsofw Source Function Deficiency proteins growthandrepair kwashiorkor sendingmessageheritous calcium system rickets carries oxygen Iron affusday anaemia nightblindness vitamin A visionin dimlight drying cornea skin easy infection of lining oflungs trachea promotesabsorptionof vitamin D calcium phosphate rickets in children vitamin C growth repfn.ie ive tissue scurvey constipation Dietaryfibre helpsfaecespass out increasedriskofcolorectalcancer 5 2 Balanced diet Diet all thefood weneed Balanceddiet allfood substances in the rightamounts proportion Energyvalue weshould maintain a balance betweenenergyinput need energy carbohydrates Provideenergy 2s ms Thefoodpyramid can beused as aguideline to plan a balanceddiet 6foodgrps relativesizes infoodpyramid choose avarietyoffood to ensure enough of variouskindsofminerals vitamins  Fats oil salt sugar milkandalternative meat fisheggsandalternative vegetabes fruits Grains carbohydrates Factors affecting ourdietary requirements 1 Age greateramount ofenergy childrenneed perunitbody mass sincetheyhavehighest metabolicrate sincehavehighestgrowthra highestrateofheatloss duetotheirhighestsurfaceareatovolumeratio Children Teenager needlargeamounts ofproteincalciumironsincethey rgrowing actively nutrientsneedtobuildbody tissues 2 Sex Malesneedmoreenergythanfemalessincehave highest metabolicratesincehave largerbodysize moremuscularbig rateofheatloss ashaveless subcutaneousfat Malesneedmoreproteinsthanfemalessince moremuscularneed proteins r neededto build repairmuscles Femalesneedmoreironto replaceloss during menstruation 3 Levelof activity pplwho rmorephysicallyactiveneedmore energy egdietof constructionworkershouldincludemorecarbohydrate richfoods energyneededformuscularactivities 4 Bodystatus formationoffoetalre Pregnantwomenneedmoreenergy protein iron since rneededforgrowthoffoetus ironisneededfor bloodcells Brestfeedingmothersneedextrasupplyofvarioustypes ofnutrients neededformilkproduction Eating too little Eating too much energyinputislessthanenergyneed energyinputisgreaterthanenergy output eg In starvation bodybreaksdownfoodreserves gainweight glycogen fat toprovideenergy onceusedup excesslipids rstoredas fat and excesssugars energystarch proteinsmayalsobe convertedintofat muscleproteinmay alsobebrokendowntorelease and breakdownof stored fat muscleproteinresultstoredinbody inweightloss whenbodyweightexceeds normallevels saidto ifcontinuethenthintweak notenoughnutrients be overweight calledobesity  o g g g o develop deficiency diseases eg diabetes mellitus highbloodpressure heart disease stroke arthritis Nutrition labels nutritionlabelsprovide informationabout energy nutrient content ofthefood common units kilocalorie Kcal calorie cal kilojoules kg Ikcal 1000 cal Cal 4.2k 6 2 Processof human nutrition Humans takein food containinglarge complex molecules g starch proteins lipids molecules havetobe brokendown before our cells can usethem Necessary because membrane ofcells is differentiallypermeablelargecomplexfood moleculescan't passthrough haveto be broken downintosmallsolublemoleculestoenterthe cells The food molecules are structurallydifferentfromthose makingup our body Body has to breakthem down anduse thesmall molecules to buildour own molecule Process Eken inthrough themouth É ÉÉÉion Food is brokendownintosmallsolublefood molecules in our digestive Égffi system ji É f Éf offhfhfhfhfedmpqy soluble food moleculesenter our circulatory gyi ftp effiggen upbycellsfor metabolism the undigested unabsorbed materials are removedfrom body as faeces Differencewith excretion isproducedby bodycells egestion isn't The humandigestive jse  9 consist Alimentary Egg producedigestive juiceswhich are a's mf Ée É ff releasedintothe alimentarycanalto aiddigestion In Ii army b in one direction Food is digested useful materials are absorbed undigested unabsorbed materials r egestedthroughthe anus Partsofalimentarycanal Digestiveglands Mouthcavity Ingestion Digestion Body cells Assimilation glands Digestive Digestion Digestion absorption isanus ie 998T on  6 3 Ingestion Ingestion istaking in of foodthrough themouth In mouthcavity food is cut up intosmallpieces bytheteeth process ofchewing food intosmall pieces mastication Types ofteeth 4 types incisorscanines premolars molars differentin shape differentfunctions Incisor biting ing Canine tearingflesh eeriest One midline one root upperjaw lowerjaw wisdom teeth Premolar crushing grindingfood MolargEkg with two P one orroots 8 99 based cusbpfdifefrektta.rs twogffee Milkteeth permanent teeth Humanshave 2 sets ofteeth Firstset MilkteethCappear first 2yearsof life second set Between age 6 12 milkteeth fall out replaced bypermanentteeth won'tbereplaced if damagedor lost Dentition Thetype number arrangement ofteeth in jaws representedbydental formula shows number of differenttypeof teeth on eachside of upper lowerjaws  Milk teeth teeth Permanent 2 incisors 2 incisors I canine canine O premolar 2 premolars Dental is Total n Eth structure of tooth a divided into 3 regions crown neck root enamel crown refffffabore registin jawbone If vessels Jawbone Permissible's cementum faffing root Process oftoothdecay Bacteria in mouthcavity digestsugars releaseac Eachtooth consistof 3 layers Acidcorrodeendemel dentine 1 Enamel exposednervefibresdetegeapff.us utgEgufaakIffPdain outermostlayer of crown How to reduce brushteethcorrectly non living mainly madeof calciumsalts teeth remove The hardesttissue in body protects toothfrom wearingdown as a fffffgff g aroundroots replacedby cementum attaches tooth to jawbone throughthe periodontalmembra 2 Dentine bone likesubstance containing a largeamountof calcium salts but not ashardas enamel a livingtissue containingstrands of livingcytoplasm 3 Pulpcavity containsliving cells bloodvessels nervefibres The bloodvessels supply oxygen nutrients to tooth removewastefrom it nervefibre can detecttemperature pressure 6 4 Digestion occurs physically chemically 1 Physicaldigestion Physicaldigestion is the breakingdown of food into smallerpieces by physicalactions doesn't change the chemical structure of thefood increases surface area of food for digestive juices to act on resultant food pieces in physicaldigestion are notyet small enough for absorption they must be further brokendown into small molecules bychemical digestion no enzymes 2 Chemical digestion Chemical digestion involves chemical reactions in which large complexfood molecule are broken down intosmall solublemolecules Thereactions are catalysedbydigestive enzymes needengzmes carbohydrates proteins into small soluble molecules that are ready for 3 main types of lipids fff.fifgffffffff absorption diÉes ÉÉ m s protease fgdon't need chemical digestion can be absorbed directly Digestion mainlyoccurs in mouth cavitystomach small intestine Mouth cavity physicaldigestion chewing mastication chemical digestion catalysed by enzyme in saliva stomach physicaldigestion churning chemical digestion catalysed byenzyme in gastric juice Small intestine physicaldigestion emulsification by bile Chemical digestion catalysed in pancreatic juice intestinal wall byenzyme Digestion in mouth cavity food is chewedbyteeth into small pieces mixed with saliva Chewing makes food easier to swallow increase surface area of thefood for th action of digestive juices saliva is a digestive juices produced in salivary glands  Substance Functions Salivary a carbohydrate whichcatalysesthe breakdown of starchinto maltose channel amylase starch ashyYa maltose a stickymaterialhelpsbindfoodparticles Mucus tghmoistens lubricatesthefoodmakes foodeasier to bechewed swallowed dissolvessoluble substances in food Water so we can taste thefood afterchewing thetongue rolls the food into a softmass called a bolus bolus isthen swallowed down the oesophagus throughthe pharynx Swallowing pharyx leads to bothoesophagus Tranched To ensure the bolus passes into the oesophagus andnot trachea or nasal cavity ever Peristalsis process of moving food from oesophagus to rectum wall of alimentary canal consists of 4 layers innermost epithelium layer ofconnectivetissue circularmuscle 2 layers ofmuscles Thistles The muscle fibre in 2 layers of muscles are arrangedin differentways These muscles worktgh in a coordinated way to pushfoodalong thealimentaryca o After food is swallowed 2 muscle layers in wall of oesophagus contractalternatively to produce a wave like movement topushfooddown to the stomach Thewave likemovement of the wall of alimentary canal iscalledpertalalsis Perstalisis occurs all the way along the alimentarycanal from oesophagus to rectum Mucus secreted from digestive glands or walls of the alimentary canal lubricates passage of food Digestion instomach stomach is a muscularbag entrance isguarded by 2 rings ofmuscles Cardiacsphincter located atjunction of oesphages stomach contractionpreventsfood fromflowing back into oesphages Pyloricsphincter located at junction of stomach duodenum controls the release of food intothe duodenum After food entersstomach muscles instomach wall contract to churn food mix with gastric juice contains a protease whichcatalysesthe breakdown chemical Pepsin ofproteinsintopeptides worksbestinanacidicmedium pepsin  and adtion Hydrochloric provides acidic mediumforthe of acid 8 mostbacteria infood protectsstomachwallfrombeingdigestedby Mucus pepsinordamaged by hydrochloric acid after fewhours food becomes a creamy liquidcalled chyme Thepyloricsphincter relaxes to release food a little at a time into duodenum preventsoverloading of duodenum allowstime for digestion in duodenum 4 1 Enzymes metabolism 1 Metabolism manychemicalreactions take place in organism to keep alive sum of thechemicalreactions is metabolism Divide into catabolism anabolism Catabolism breakingdown reactions in an organism complex molecules r brokendown into simpler molecules energy is released eg respiration glucose carbondioxide water to releaseenergy Breakdown of complex food molecules Anabolism building up reactions in an organism complex molecules r synthesized fromsimpler molecules energy is required eg Photosynthesis Glucosemolecules are synthesizedfrom carbohydrates water synthesis of complex molecules Role of enzymes in metabolism a certain amount of energy must besupplied to thereactantsbefore reaction can occur energy we need to supply toreactants before starting a reagff hecalledactivationenergy enzymes r present which function as biological catalysthelploweractivation energy so chemical reaction can take place at bodytemperature at faster rate eg Important to remove hydrogen peroxide Ca toxic by product of some metabolicreactio without enzymes reaction would be so slow that toxic hydrogen peroxide  withenzyme called catalase reaction take place1014 times faster 0 hydrogg Foxide 991,595 Catabolic reaction Anabolicreaction energy levelofproducts is lower energy level of products is higher Thanreactants than reactants energy is released energy is absorbed Draw Catabolic Anabolic n edu 989 eu tEadfdacts EEdsed products 4 2 Actions propertiesof enzymes 1 Actions of enzymes enzymes r specialtypes of proteins produced in organism on each enzyme molecules there's anactivesite whichbinds to substratemoleculesduring reactions active sites has specific shape onlysubstrate molecules that fit itsshape bind to it ts f a substrate 1 Ñ SÉIÉÉÉ ease binds to activesite ofenzyme molecule to form enzyme substrate complex Formation of the enzyme substratecomplex greatly lowers the activation energy of reaction  2 See Irale cule is converted intoproducts 3 Productsleaveactive site 4 Enzyme molecule is released in its originalform can be reused enzyme binds to substrate molecules helps split them apart in anabolic reaction enzymebinds to substratemolecules helps join themtgh Properties 1 Enzymes are biologicalcatalyst speed up metabolic reactionsbylowering activationenergy 2 Action of enzymes are specific each enzyme has a uniqueactive site whichhas specific shape it only acts on substrate that can fit intoitsactivesite Each enzymes can catalyse I typeofreactiononly enzymes r said tobespecificinaction a enzymethat can fit into active site substrate enzyme enzyme substrateformed products produced b moleculethat can't fit intotheactivesite othermolecule enzyme no enzyme substrateformed no reaction specificity of enzymeactions can beexplainedby the look and key hypothesis Key of a specificshape fits only I lock an enzyme w an active site of a specificshape binds onlyto a particular Type of substrate 3 Enzymes or proteins enzymes are proteins Their structure activity are easilyaffectedbytemperature pH most enzymes r denatured at highTemp extreme pH 4 Enzyme r reuseable enzyme remain unchanged after reactions they can bindto othersubstratemoleculeafter reaction is complete 5 Enzyme needed in relatively small amounts r enzymes can be reused usuallyneededin small amounts only 4 3 Factorsaffecting enzymeactivity 1 Temperature low  g ie gy y ale is 1 molecules moveslowly chance of colliding is low as temperaturerises activity ofenzymeincrease cuz enzyme substratemolecules have more kineticenergy move around more rapidly collide w eachother more frequently increasechance of formingenzyme substrate complexes 10 C below 10 C optimumtemp as temperaturerises activity ofenzyme will eventuallyreach amaximum temperature whic maximumactivity occur is known as optimumtemperature each type of enzyme has its own optimum temperature while mostenzyme have an optimum temperature of about 215 50 C enzymes in organisms in extremeconditions have optimumtemperature as low as 10 C and as high as 90 C form the most enzyme substrate complex Hightemp activity ofenzymedecreases sincehightemperature causes a changein shape of active site ofenzyme molecules enzyme is said to be denatured substrate can nolonger fit into activesite of enzyme to form enzyme substrate complex enzymeloses catalytic ability permanently optimumpH activity of enzyme is at its maximum eachtypeof enzyme has its ownoptimum pH manyenzymes likemammals salivaryamylease haveoptimumpH of about 7 enzymes likepepsinhaveoptimum pH of about 2 pancreaticlipasehas optimumpHof 9 low high at unsuitable pH activity ofenzyme decreases cuz unsuitablepHcausesdenaturation ofenzy substratecan nolonger fit into active site of enzyme to form enzyme substratecomplex enzyme loses its catalytic abilitypermanently Inhibitors inhibitors are substances thatdecreasesactivityof enzyme eg 1 Cyanide is inhibitor of an enzyme involved in respiration prevents enzymefromfuntioning properly cyanidepreventsrespiration may cause death 2 Heavy metal Cmercuric iron lead II ions copper II ions r inhibitors of some enzyme in our body taking in too much ions may affect our metabolism cause harm to us