Biology PDF

‭Biology‬ T‭ ypes‬‭of‬‭cells:‬ ‭ Eukaryote:‬ → ‭-complex,‬‭has‬‭nucleus,uni/multicellular‬ ‭(plant‬‭and‬‭animal‬‭cells)‬ ‭ Procaryote:‬ → ‭-small‬‭and‬‭simple,‬‭no‬‭nucleus;nucleoid,‬‭material‬‭floats‬‭in‬‭cytoplasm‬ ‭(bacterias)‬ ‭Cell‬‭membrane:‬‭covers‬‭the‬‭cell‬ ‭-‬ ‭Gatekeeper‬‭t...

‭Biology‬ T‭ ypes‬‭of‬‭cells:‬ ‭ Eukaryote:‬ → ‭-complex,‬‭has‬‭nucleus,uni/multicellular‬ ‭(plant‬‭and‬‭animal‬‭cells)‬ ‭ Procaryote:‬ → ‭-small‬‭and‬‭simple,‬‭no‬‭nucleus;nucleoid,‬‭material‬‭floats‬‭in‬‭cytoplasm‬ ‭(bacterias)‬ ‭Cell‬‭membrane:‬‭covers‬‭the‬‭cell‬ ‭-‬ ‭Gatekeeper‬‭to‬‭control‬‭the‬‭movement‬‭of‬‭mats‬‭in/out‬‭of‬‭the‬‭cell‬ ‭-‬ ‭Double‬‭layered‬ ‭-‬ ‭semi-permeable‬ ‭-‬ ‭Cell‬‭wall:‬‭rigid‬‭mat-‬‭surrounds,‬‭protects‬‭and‬‭supports‬‭membrane‬‭(‭c‬ ellulose‬‭)‬ ‭Ribosomes‬‭:‬‭small‬‭protein‬‭structure-‬‭cell‬‭division‬ ‭-‬ ‭ANIMAL‬ ‭Chloroplast‬‭:‬‭organelle‬‭containing‬‭chlorophyll‬‭-‬‭photosynthesis‬ ‭-‬ ‭PLANT‬ ‭-‬ ‭Primary‬‭food‬‭factor‬ ‭-‬ ‭CO2+H2O→‬‭C6H2O6+O2‬ ‭DNA‬‭:‬‭threadlike‬‭structure-‬‭genetic/‬‭hereditary‬‭info‬ ‭-‬ ‭Genetic‬‭code‬ ‭Cytoplasm‬‭:‬‭area‬‭of‬‭the‬‭cell‬‭where‬‭nutrients=absorbed,‬‭transported‬‭&‬‭processed‬ ‭-‬ ‭#‬‭of‬‭organelles‬ ‭-‬ ‭Mostly‬‭water‬ ‭-‬ ‭Many‬‭chem‬‭reactions‬ ‭Cytoskeleton‬‭:‬‭a‬‭network‬‭of‬‭protein‬‭fibres‬‭supporting‬‭cell‬‭shape‬‭anchors‬‭organelles‬ ‭-‬ ‭stretch/contract‬‭to‬‭move‬‭cell‬‭parts‬‭where‬‭needed‬ ‭ER‬‭:‬‭series‬‭of‬‭canals‬‭that‬‭carry‬‭mat‬‭through‬‭cell‬ ‭-‬ ‭3D‬‭of‬‭branching‬‭tubes/pockets‬ ‭-‬ ‭Extends‬‭throughout‬‭cytoplasm‬ ‭-‬ ‭Fluid-filled‬ ‭2‬‭Types‬‭of‬‭ER‬‭:‬ ‭→‬‭Smooth‬‭ER‬ ‭a.‬ ‭No‬‭ribosomes‬‭attached‬ ‭b.‬ ‭Makes‬‭fats/lipids‬ ‭→‬‭Rough‬‭ER‬ ‭c.‬ ‭Ribosomes‬‭attached‬ ‭d.‬ ‭Helps‬‭make‬‭proteins‬ ‭Golgi‬‭apparatus‬‭:‬‭stores‬‭proteins‬‭until‬‭needed‬‭inside/outside‬‭the‬‭cell‬ ‭-‬ ‭collect/process‬‭mats‬‭to‬‭be‬‭removed‬‭from‬‭the‬‭cel‬‭l***‬ ‭-‬ ‭make/secrete‬‭mucus‬‭(eg.‬‭intestine‬‭)‬ ‭Lysosomes‬‭:‬‭saclike‬‭structure‬‭formed‬‭by‬‭Golgi‬‭Apparatus‬ ‭-‬ ‭Proteins‬‭to‬‭break‬‭down‬‭large‬‭molecules/other‬‭cell‬‭parts‬ ‭-‬ ‭ANIMAL‬ ‭Mitochondria‬‭:‬‭tiny,‬‭oval-shaped‬‭organelles-‬‭provide‬‭cell‬‭energy‬‭from‬‭cellular‬‭respiration‬ ‭-‬ ‭Powerhouse‬ ‭Nucleolus‬‭:‬‭-‬‭sphere‬‭within‬‭the‬‭nucleus‬‭of‬‭some‬‭cells‬ ‭-‬ ‭Involved‬‭in‬‭making‬‭proteins…‬‭ribosomes‬ ‭Nucleus‬‭:‬‭control‬‭centre‬‭directing‬‭all‬‭cell‬‭activities‬ ‭-‬ ‭contains‬‭chromosomes‬‭and‬‭DNA‬ ‭Ribosome‬‭:‬‭organelle‬‭that‬‭builds‬‭proteins‬‭essential‬‭for‬‭cell‬‭growth‬‭&‬‭reproduction‬ V‭ acuole‬‭:‬‭small‬‭membrane-surrounded‬‭compartment‬‭that‬‭stores‬‭water,‬‭and‬‭wastes‬‭other‬ ‭mats.‬ ‭-‬ ‭Larger‬‭in‬‭plant‬‭cells‬ ‭-‬ ‭When‬‭full‬‭of‬‭water,‬‭turgor‬‭pressure‬‭keeps‬‭the‬‭cells‬‭plump‬‭&‬‭firm‬ O‭ rganelle‬‭functions‬‭:‬‭-‬‭intake‬‭of‬‭nutrients‬‭-‬‭movement‬‭-‬‭growth‬‭-‬‭exchange‬‭of‬‭gases‬‭-‬‭waste‬ ‭removal‬‭-‬‭reproduction‬ ‭Terminology:‬ ‭Solute‬‭:‬‭sub‬‭that‬‭can‬‭be‬‭dissolved‬ ‭Solvent‬‭:‬‭dissolving‬‭solute‬‭(water)‬ ‭Solution‬‭:‬‭solvent‬‭&‬‭solute‬‭after‬‭combining‬ ‭ECF‬‭:‬‭surrounds‬‭all‬‭living‬‭cells‬ ‭Concentration‬‭:‬‭mass‬‭of‬‭solute‬‭dissolved‬‭in‬‭a‬‭solvent‬ ‭Semi-permeable‬‭:‬‭membrane‬‭allowing‬‭some‬‭subs‬ ‭Passive‬‭Transport:‬‭movement‬‭of‬‭molecules‬‭(semi‬‭perm→‬‭gradient)‬ ‭-‬ ‭3‬‭Types‬‭:‬‭Osmosis,‬‭simple‬‭diffusion,‬‭facilitated‬‭diffusion‬ ‭-‬ ‭ ovement‬‭of‬‭molecules‬‭across‬‭a‬‭semipermeable‬‭membrane‬‭with‬‭protein‬ M ‭-‬ ‭No‬‭ENERGY‬ ‭Active‬‭transport‬‭:‬‭movement‬‭of‬‭molecules‬‭across‬‭a‬‭semi-perm‬‭membran‬‭e‬‭against‬‭a‬ ‭concentration‬‭gradient‬‭with‬‭a‬‭protein‬ ‭→‬‭Diffusion‬‭:‬‭solute‬‭molecules‬‭moving‬‭from‬‭an‬‭area‬‭with‬‭high‬‭concentration→‬‭low‬ ‭-‬ ‭Random‬‭motions‬ ‭-‬ ‭Equilibrium‬‭:‬‭even‬‭distribution‬‭of‬‭solute‬‭molecules‬ ‭ ‬‭Osmosis‬‭:‬‭diffusion‬‭of‬‭water→‬‭semi-permeable‬‭membrane‬‭permeable‬‭to‬‭solvents‬ → ‭(WATER),‬‭not‬‭to‬‭large‬‭molecules‬ ‭-‬ ‭-‬‭High‬‭(water)-->‬‭low‬‭(water)‬ E‭ nvironments:‬ ‭Terminology‬ ‭water=‬‭solvent‬‭|‬‭glucose,‬‭starch,‬‭salt:‬‭solute‬ ‭→‬‭Hypertonic‬‭Envrt:‬‭high‬‭(‬‭solute‬‭),‬‭low‬‭(water)‬‭***‬ ‭→Isotonic‬‭Envrt:‬‭(water)=(‬‭solute‬‭)‬ ‭→Hypotonic‬‭Envrt:‬‭High‬‭(water),‬‭low‬‭(‬‭solute‬‭)‬ F‭ acilitated‬‭Diffusion:‬‭passive‬ ‭2‬‭Methods‬ ‭1.‬ ‭Pore‬‭(‬‭Channel‬‭Protein)‬‭:‬‭A‬‭protein‬‭that‬‭forms‬‭a‬‭tunnel‬‭in‬‭the‬‭membrane‬‭,‬‭allowing‬ ‭specific‬‭molecules‬‭or‬‭ions‬‭to‬‭pass‬‭through.‬ ‭2.‬ ‭Carrier‬‭protein:‬‭A‬‭protein‬‭that‬‭binds‬‭to‬‭a‬‭molecule,‬‭changes‬‭shape,‬‭and‬‭transports‬‭it‬ ‭across‬‭the‬‭membrane‬‭.‬ ‭Active‬‭Transport‬ ‭→‬‭2‬‭Methods‬ ‭1.‬ ‭Against‬‭concentration‬‭gradient‬‭***‬ ‭a.‬ ‭sodium-potassium‬‭pump‬ ‭2.‬ ‭Endocytosis‬ ‭a.‬ ‭Bringing‬‭bulk‬‭chems‬‭into‬‭a‬‭cell‬‭(‭e ‬ ndo‬‭=inside)‬‭(‬‭exo‬‭=out)‬ ‭i.‬ ‭The‬‭p‭i‬ nched‬‭portion‬‭that‬‭breaks‬‭free‬‭from‬‭the‬‭cell‬‭membrane‬‭+‬‭forms‬ ‭a‬‭vesicle‬‭in‬‭the‬‭cytoplasm‬ T‭ he‬‭Microscope‬ ‭Light‬‭source:‬‭either‬‭a‬‭mirror‬‭or‬‭bulb‬‭built‬‭into‬‭the‬‭base‬ ‭Diaphragm:‬‭adjust‬‭the‬‭amount‬‭of‬‭light‬‭striking‬‭the‬‭object‬ ‭Objective‬‭lens:‬‭gathers‬‭light+magnifies‬‭image‬‭(4x,‬‭10x,‬‭40x)‬ ‭Ocular‬‭lens‬‭(eyepiece)‬‭:‬‭magnifies+‬‭focuses‬‭light‬‭into‬‭your‬‭eye‬‭(10x)‬ ‭Stage:‬‭holds‬‭slide‬‭,‬‭moved‬‭the‬‭coarse‬‭adjustment‬‭knob‬‭for‬‭focus‬ S‭ tage‬‭clips:‬‭hold‬‭the‬‭slide‬‭in‬‭place‬ ‭Base‬‭and‬‭arm:‬‭support‬‭for‬‭the‬‭microscope‬ ‭Resolution‬‭:‬‭the‬‭ability‬‭to‬‭distinguish‬‭between‬‭two‬‭objects‬‭close‬‭together‬ F‭ inding‬‭Field‬‭Diamter:‬ ‭Hpfd‬ ‭lpm‬ ‭high‬‭power‬‭field‬‭diameter‬ ‭low‬‭power‬‭magnification‬ ‭—----‬ ‭=‬‭—----‬ ‭—------------------------------‬‭=‬‭—------------------------------‬ ‭Lpfd‬ ‭hpm‬ ‭low‬‭power‬‭field‬‭diameter‬ ‭high‬‭power‬‭magnification‬ ‭Actual‬‭Size‬‭of‬‭Specimen:‬ ‭Field‬‭diameter‬ ‭Actual‬‭size=‬‭—------------------‬ ‭#‬‭of‬‭specimens‬‭fitting‬‭across‬‭field‬‭diameter‬ ‭Magnification‬‭of‬‭a‬‭Drawing:‬ ‭ idth‬‭of‬‭drawing‬ W ‭ agnification‬‭of‬‭a‬‭Drawing=‬‭—----------------------------‬ M ‭Actual‬‭size‬‭of‬‭specimen‬ ‭Cell‬‭division:‬ ‭Functions:‬ ‭reproduction,‬‭reparation,‬‭growth‬‭of‬‭cells‬ ‭→‬‭Asexual‬‭Reproduction:‬‭the‬‭process‬‭of‬‭producing‬‭offspring‬‭from‬‭1‬‭parent‬ ‭-‬ ‭Genetically‬‭identical‬‭offspring→‬‭parent‬ ‭Eg‬‭.‬‭single-celled‬‭organisms,‬‭some‬‭multicellular‬‭organisms‬ ‭ ‬‭Sexual‬‭Reproduction‬‭:‬‭the‬‭process‬‭of‬‭producing‬‭offspring‬‭by‬‭fusion‬‭of‬‭sex‬‭cells‬‭from‬‭2‬ → ‭Parents‬ ‭-‬ ‭Offspring‬‭get‬‭HAlf‬‭genetic‬‭info‬‭from‬‭each‬‭parent‬ ‭SEg.‬‭most‬‭multicellular‬‭organisms‬ ‭The‬‭Cell‬‭Cycle:‬ ‭-‬ ‭2‬‭major‬‭phases:‬‭interphase+mitosis‬ I‭ nterphase‬‭:‬‭series‬ ‭of‬‭phases‬‭allowing‬‭the‬‭cell‬‭to‬‭grow,‬‭duplicate‬‭and‬‭prepare‬‭for‬ ‭mitosis‬  3‭ ‬‭Parts:‬ ‭1.‬ ‭G1‬‭:‬‭cells‬‭grow‬‭(‭g‬ rowth‬‭to‬‭undergo‬‭mitosis‬‭,‬‭if‬‭not‬‭daughter‬‭cells‬‭die‬‭)‬ ‭2.‬ ‭S‬‭:‬‭cells‬‭replicate‬‭Dna‬‭=‬‭2‬‭copies‬ ‭3.‬ ‭G2‬‭:‬‭cells‬‭get‬‭ready‬‭to‬‭go‬‭through‬‭mitosis‬‭+‬‭divide‬ ‭During‬‭interphase,‬‭cells‬‭carry‬‭out‬‭normal‬‭life‬‭functions‬ ‭Mitosis‬‭:‬‭The‬‭cell‬‭divides‬‭and‬‭1‬‭cell=2‬ ‭Purpose‬‭:‬‭2‬‭genetically‬‭identical‬‭daughter‬‭cells‬ ‭Considered‬‭the‬‭divisions‬‭of‬‭the‬‭genome/nucleus‬ C‭ ytokinesis‬‭:‬‭[physical‬‭separation‬‭of‬‭a‬‭cell‬‭into‬‭2‬‭daughter‬‭cells‬‭,‬‭following‬‭mitosis‬‭)‬ ‭MITOSIS‬‭AND‬‭CYTOKINESIS‬ ‭Interphase→‬‭Prophase→‬‭Metaphase‬‭→‬‭Anaphase→‬‭Telophase→‬‭Cytokinesis→‬ ‭Interphase‬ ‭PMAT‬ ‭Prophase‬‭:‬‭chromatin‬‭in‬‭the‬‭nucleus‬‭condenses‬‭into‬‭thick‬‭coiled‬‭structures‬‭.‬‭Chromosomes‬ ‭-‬ ‭2‬‭copies‬‭of‬‭each‬‭chromosome‬ ‭-‬ ‭Each‬‭Chromosome‬‭contains‬‭2‬‭copies‬‭=‭s‬ ister‬‭chromatid‬‭s‬‭(‭h ‬ eld‬‭by‬‭centromere‬‭)‬ ‭ etaphase‬‭:‬‭chromosomes‬‭line‬‭up‬‭the‬‭centre‬‭of‬‭the‬‭cel‬‭l-‬‭moved‬‭by‬‭spindle‬‭fibres‬ M ‭(‬‭attached‬‭to‬‭the‬‭centromere‬‭)‬ ‭Anaphase‬‭:‬‭centromere‬‭in‬‭the‬‭middle‬‭of‬‭chromosome‬‭breaks‬ ‭-‬ ‭Sister‬‭chromatids‬‭pulled‬‭to‬‭opposite‬‭sides/poles‬‭by‬‭spindle‬‭fibres‬ ‭Telophase‬‭:‬‭chromosomes/tids‬‭BEGIN‬‭to‬‭unwind‬‭to‬‭chromatin‬ ‭-‬ ‭The‬‭nuclear‬‭membrane‬‭begins‬‭to‬‭reform‬‭to‬‭make‬‭2‬‭new‬‭nuclei‬‭in‬‭the‬‭same‬‭parent‬ ‭cell‬ ‭Cytokinesis‬‭:‬‭not‬‭part‬‭of‬‭mitosis‬ ‭-‬ ‭Division‬‭of‬‭cytoplasm‬‭(‬‭2‬‭new‬‭daughter‬‭cells)‬ ‭-‬ ‭Animal‬‭cells‬‭:‬‭cytokinesis‬‭happens‬‭when‬‭th‬‭e‬‭plasma‬‭membrane‬‭pinches‬‭until‬‭2‬ ‭cells=forms‬ ‭-‬ ‭In‬‭plant‬‭cells,‬‭a‬‭cell‬‭plat‬‭e‬‭forms‬‭between‬‭2‬‭nuclei,‬‭separating‬‭them‬‭and‬‭creating‬‭two‬ ‭new‬‭cells.‬ R‭ egeneration‬‭:‬ ‭ ‬‭process‬‭a‬‭body‬‭part=regrown‬ →  ‭-‬ ‭All‬‭cells‬‭in‬‭an‬‭organism‬‭contain‬‭the‬‭same‬‭DN,‬‭but‬‭are‬‭not‬‭all‬‭alike‬ ‭-‬ ‭Cell‬‭specialization‬ S‭ tem‬‭cell:‬‭unspecialized‬‭cel‬‭l-‬‭can‬‭form‬‭specialized‬‭cells‬‭exposed‬‭to‬‭proper‬‭environmental‬ ‭conditions/remain‬‭unspecialized‬‭and‬‭actively‬‭dividing‬‭for‬‭long‬‭periods‬ ‭-‬ ‭Capable‬‭of‬‭becoming‬‭any‬‭tissue‬‭except‬‭the‬‭placenta‬ ‭Types‬‭:‬ ‭1.‬ ‭Embryonic‬‭:‬‭able‬‭to‬‭undergo‬‭differentiation‬‭-‬‭found‬‭in‬‭embryos‬ ‭2.‬ ‭Adult‬‭stem‬‭cells‬‭:‬‭stem‬‭cells‬‭that‬‭have‬‭undergone‬‭further‬‭specialization‬‭to‬‭the‬‭point‬ ‭where‬‭there’s‬‭limited‬‭ability‬‭to‬‭create‬‭a‬‭variety‬‭of‬‭cell‬‭types‬ ‭Differentiation:‬ ‭Potency‬‭Definitions‬ ‭1.‬ T‭ otipotent‬‭:‬‭Can‬‭become‬‭any‬‭cell‬‭,‬‭including‬‭the‬‭placenta‬‭(‭f‬ orms‬‭a‬‭whole‬‭organism‬‭).‬ ‭(omnipotent)‬‭(from‬‭fusion‬‭of‬‭sperm+egg‬‭)‬ ‭2.‬ P‭ luripotent‬‭:‬‭Can‬‭become‬‭almost‬‭any‬‭body‬‭cell‬‭,‬‭but‬‭not‬‭the‬‭placenta‬‭.‬‭(originate‬ ‭from‬‭inner‬‭masses‬‭cells‬‭within‬‭blastocyst)‬ ‭3.‬ ‭Multipotent‬‭:‬‭Can‬‭become‬‭specific‬‭cells‬‭within‬‭a‬‭tissue‬‭(e.g.,‬‭blood‬‭cells).‬ ‭‬ ‭Most‬‭stem‬‭cells‬‭for‬‭research‬‭from‬‭embryos‬‭are‬‭created‬‭by‬‭in‬‭vitro‬‭fertilization.‬ ‭‬ ‭Most‬‭adult‬‭stem‬‭cells‬‭are‬‭involved‬‭in‬‭the‬‭replacementt‬‭of‬‭decayed‬‭tissue‬ ‭Meristematic‬‭Cells‬‭:‬‭plant‬‭stem‬‭cells‬ ‭-‬ ‭In‬‭growing‬‭tips‬‭of‬‭roots‬‭and‬‭stems+‬‭layer‬‭of‬‭cambium‬ ‭-‬ ‭Constantly‬‭make‬ ‭new‬‭cells‬ ‭Organ‬‭and‬‭tissue‬‭definitions:‬ ‭Organ‬‭:‬‭an‬‭organized‬‭group‬‭of‬‭tissues‬‭joined‬‭together‬‭to‬‭perform‬‭a‬‭specific‬‭function‬ ‭Tissues‬‭:‬‭group‬‭of‬‭similar‬‭cells‬‭sharing‬‭special‬‭structure+function‬ ‭Animal‬‭organs:‬  ‭1.‬ ‭Epithelial‬ ‭‬ E‭ pidermis‬‭:‬‭Outer‬‭protective‬‭layer‬‭from‬‭epithelial‬‭tissue‬‭preventing‬‭dehydration,‬ ‭friction,‬‭bacteria+virus‬‭entrance‬‭and‬‭produces‬‭vitamin‬‭D‬‭when‬‭exposed‬‭to‬‭UV‬ ‭(essential‬‭for‬‭bone‬‭development‬‭)‬ ‭○‬ ‭Thin‬‭sheets‬‭of‬‭packed‬‭cells‬ ‭‬ ‭ ermis‬‭:‬‭inner‬‭layer‬‭of‬‭skin‬‭made‬‭of‬‭connective‬‭tissue,‬‭nervous‬‭tissue,‬‭muscle‬ D ‭tissue‬‭(provide‬‭structure‬‭and‬‭support)‬ ‭2.‬ ‭ uscle‬‭:‬‭allows‬‭movement‬‭of‬‭the‬‭bod‬‭y‬‭(l‬‭ong‬‭thin‬‭fibres‬‭containing‬‭specialized‬ M ‭proteins‬‭capable‬‭of‬‭shrinkingandd‬‭rowin‬‭g)‬ ‭‬ ‭Goosebumps,‬‭skeletal,‬‭smooth‬‭muscle,‬‭cardiac‬‭muscle‬ ‭‬ ‭Heart‬‭:‬‭supplies‬‭blood‬‭to‬‭the‬‭body‬ ‭3.‬ ‭ ervous‬‭:‬‭provide‬‭sensory‬‭sensation‬‭(communication‬‭with‬‭brain)‬‭(‬‭thin‬‭cells‬‭with‬ N ‭fine‬‭branches‬‭capable‬‭of‬‭conducting‬‭electricity‬‭)‬‭by‬‭neurons‬ ‭.‬ 4 C‭ onnective‬‭:‬‭Provide‬‭structure+support+insulation‬‭(hold‬‭tissues‬‭)‬ ‭‬ ‭Eg.‬‭blood/vessels‬‭(dilate‬‭when‬‭hot‬‭to‬‭release‬‭heat,‬‭pores‬‭that‬‭secrete‬‭sweat‬‭tendon‬ ‭(‬‭muscle→‬‭bone‬‭),‬‭ligaments‬‭(‭b‬ one→‬‭bone‬‭),‬‭white/red‬‭blood‬‭cells‬ ‭‬ ‭Fat:‬‭insulation‬ ‭Skeletal‬‭muscle‬‭-‬‭move‬‭body‬‭parts‬‭(‬‭voluntary‬‭)‬ S‭ mooth‬‭muscle‬‭cells‬‭:‬‭found‬‭in‬‭the‬‭walls‬‭of‬‭tubes‬‭such‬‭as‬‭blood‬‭vessels,‬‭ducts‬‭+‬‭digestive‬ ‭system‬‭(‬‭involuntary‬‭)‬ ‭Cardiac‬‭muscle:‬‭heart‬‭(‬‭involuntary‬‭)‬ ‭Dermi‬‭:‬‭inner‬‭layer‬‭of‬‭skin‬‭made‬‭of‬‭muscle‬‭,‬‭nervous‬‭and‬‭connective‬‭tissues‬ ‭Eg.‬‭skin‬‭protects‬‭us‬‭from‬‭cells‬‭damage‬‭and‬‭disease,‬‭insulates,‬‭releases‬‭waste‬‭and‬‭heat‬ ‭-‬ ‭Made‬‭of‬‭epidermis‬‭and‬‭dermis‬ ‭Plant‬‭Tissues:‬ ‭4‬‭Types‬‭of‬‭Plant‬‭Tissues‬‭Formedd‬‭from‬‭MeristematicTissue:‬ ‭1.‬ ‭Epidermal‬‭:‬‭top-underside‬‭(‭c‬ lear‬‭and‬‭very‬‭thin)‬ ‭a.‬ S‭ pecialized‬‭guard‬‭cells‬ ‭(tiny‬‭opening=stomate‬‭allowing‬‭CO2,‬‭water‬‭vapour,‬ ‭O2‬‭to‬‭move‬‭in‬‭and‬‭out‬‭of‬‭leaf)‬ ‭2.‬ ‭Vascular‬‭Tissue:‬‭transports‬‭water+nutrients‬‭through‬‭plant‬ ‭a.‬ ‭2‬‭types‬ ‭i.‬ ‭Xylem‬‭:‬‭movement‬‭of‬‭water+minerals‬‭from‬‭roots‬‭up‬‭to‬‭the‬‭site‬‭to‬ ‭leaves‬‭where‬‭this‬‭subs=‬‭photosynthesis‬ ‭ii.‬ ‭Phloem‬‭:‬‭transports‬‭sugar‬‭from‬‭photosynthesis‬‭in‬‭leave‬‭s‬‭to‬‭other‬ ‭parts‬‭of‬‭the‬‭plant‬‭for‬‭cellular‬‭activity‬‭energy‬ ‭3.‬ ‭Ground‬‭Tissue‬‭:‬‭most‬‭of‬‭plant‬ ‭a.‬ ‭Roots‬‭:‬‭involved‬‭in‬‭food-water‬‭storage‬ ‭b.‬ ‭Leaves‬‭:‬‭photosynthesis+gas‬‭exchang‬‭e‬‭occurs‬‭in‬‭specialized‬‭ground‬‭tissues‬ ‭(mesophyll)‬‭.‬‭photosynthesis=co2+‬‭water=dugar+oxygen‬ ‭4.‬ ‭Meristematic‬‭Tissue:‬‭unspecialized‬‭tissue‬‭in‬‭roots‬‭capable‬‭of‬‭specialization‬ ‭Respiratory‬‭System:‬ ‭→‬‭nose,‬‭mouth,‬‭trachea,‬‭bronchi,‬‭lungs‬ ‭oral/nasal‬‭cavities→‬‭pharnyx→‬‭larynx‬‭(voice‬‭box)→‬‭trachea‬‭(helped‬‭by‬‭the‬‭epiglottis)→‬ ‭Sugar+oxygen→‬‭water+carbon‬‭dioxide+water‬ ‭*The‬ ‭trachea‬‭separates‬‭into‬‭two‬‭branches‬‭(bronchi/‬‭singular-‬‭bronchus)‬‭delivering‬‭air‬‭to‬ ‭the‬‭lungs‬ ‭ ‬‭each‬‭bronchus‬‭branches‬‭again‬‭and‬‭agai‬‭n‬‭(bronchioles)‬‭ending‬‭in‬‭tiny‬‭air‬‭sacks=‬‭aveoli‬ … ‭that‬‭produce‬‭large‬‭surface‬‭areas‬‭with‬‭thin‬‭cell‬‭walls‬ ‭-‬ S‭ ome‬‭of‬‭the‬‭epithelial‬‭cells‬‭lining‬‭trachea+bronchi‬‭:‬ ‭produce‬‭mucus,‬‭have‬‭cilia,‬ ‭trap‬‭bacteria+dirt‬ ‭-‬ E‭ ach‬‭alveolus‬‭is‬ ‭surrounded‬‭by‬‭network‬‭capillaries‬‭(capillary‬‭network)‬‭for‬ ‭good‬‭blood‬‭supply‬ ‭-‬ ‭then‬ ‭oxygen+carbon‬‭only‬‭diffuse‬‭through‬‭two‬‭thin‬‭walls‬ ‭Lungs‬‭:‬‭pair‬‭of‬‭organs‬‭for‬‭respiration‬ ‭-‬ ‭Made‬‭of‬‭epithelial‬‭and‬‭connective‬‭tissue‬ ‭Inspiration‬‭:‬‭to‬‭decrease‬‭air‬‭pressure‬‭in‬‭the‬ ‭lungs‬ ‭1.‬ ‭Diaphragm‬‭contracts+‬‭moves‬‭downward‬‭(muscle)‬ ‭2.‬ E‭ xterna‬‭l‬‭intercostal‬‭muscles‬‭contract‬‭and‬‭the‬ ‭ribcage‬‭moves‬‭upward‬‭and‬‭out‬ ‭(increase‬‭in‬‭volume,‬‭decrease‬‭in‬‭pressure…‬‭air‬‭enters)‬ E‭ xpiration‬‭:‬‭diaphragm‬‭and‬‭intercostal‬‭muscles‬‭relax‬‭.‬‭-‬‭decreasing‬‭volume,‬‭increasing‬ ‭pressure‬‭…‬‭air‬‭leaves‬ ‭‬ ‭Lungs‬‭move‬‭from‬‭water‬‭and‬‭blood‬‭by‬‭diffusion.‬ ‭Digestive‬‭System‬ ‭Ingestion‬‭-‬‭taking‬‭in‬‭nutrients‬ ‭ igestion‬‭-‬‭breakdown‬‭of‬‭complex‬‭organic‬‭molecules‬‭into‬‭smaller‬‭components‬‭by‬ D ‭physical/chemical‬‭means‬ ‭Absorption‬‭-‬‭t‬‭aking‬‭up‬‭digested‬‭materials‬‭into‬‭the‬‭cells‬‭of‬‭the‬‭tract‬ ‭Egestion‬‭-‬‭removal‬‭of‬‭waste,‬‭food,‬‭and‬ ‭mats‬‭from‬‭the‬‭body‬ ‭Esophagus‬‭:‬‭muscular‬‭tube‬‭connecting‬‭mouth→‬‭stomach‬‭→‬‭lining‬‭is‬‭a‬‭smooth‬‭muscle‬ ‭tissue‬‭(‬‭relax+‬‭contract‬‭to‬‭swallow)‬‭(peristalsis)‬ S‭ tomach‬‭:‬‭contracts+relax‬‭=‬‭break‬‭food‬‭(‬‭enzyms‬‭+hydrochloric‬‭acid‬‭-‬‭mucus‬‭protects‬‭the‬ ‭stomach‬‭lining‬‭from‬‭the‬‭gastric‬‭juices)‬ S‭ mall‬‭intestine‬‭:‬‭most‬‭digestion‬‭is‬‭done‬‭in‬‭the‬‭duodenum‬‭by‬‭secretions‬‭.‬‭Small‬‭projections‬‭in‬ ‭the‬‭small‬‭intestine‬‭called‬‭villi‬‭increase‬‭SA‬‭to‬‭help‬‭absorption‬‭in‬‭the‬‭bloodstream‬ L‭ arge‬‭intestine:‬‭absorbs‬‭water‬‭and‬‭egestion‬‭:‬‭cellulose‬‭not‬‭digested‬‭(main‬‭component‬‭of‬ ‭feces‬‭)‬ ‭Waste‬‭builds‬‭up…‬‭large‬‭intestine‬‭voids‬‭waste.‬ ‭The‬‭Circulatory‬‭System:‬ T‭ he‬‭“‬‭Pipes‬‭”:‬‭arteries‬‭(small‬‭and‬‭thin=‬‭arterioles‬‭)‬‭,‬‭veins‬‭(‬‭venules‬‭),‬‭capillaries‬‭(from‬ ‭arterioles‬‭)‬ ‭Arteries‬ ‭-‬ ‭Large,‬‭thick-walled‬‭elastic‬‭vessels‬ -‭ ‬ ‭ ostly‬‭oxygenated‬‭blood‬‭carried‬‭away‬‭from‬‭the‬‭heart‬ M ‭-‬ ‭Arteries‬‭shrink‬‭as‬‭the‬‭aorta‬‭leaves‬‭the‬‭heart‬‭and‬‭decrease‬‭in‬‭diameter…‬ ‭small‬‭arteries=arterioles‬ ‭Capillaries‬ ‭-‬ ‭Thin‬‭hair-like‬‭structures,‬‭composed‬‭of‬‭single-celled‬‭walls‬ ‭-‬ B‭ lood‬‭cells‬‭roll‬‭slowly‬‭through‬‭capillaries‬‭so‬‭there's‬‭time‬‭for‬‭exchange‬‭between‬ ‭capillary‬‭and‬‭cell+‬‭tissues‬‭supplied‬ ‭-‬ ‭Waste,‬‭oxygen‬‭co2,‬‭nutrients,‬‭hormones,and‬ ‭ions‬‭pass‬‭between‬‭capillary‬‭and‬‭cell‬ ‭-‬ ‭Large‬‭beds‬‭of‬‭capillaries‬‭supply‬‭tissues‬‭and‬‭organs‬‭reaching‬‭every‬‭cell‬ ‭Veins‬ ‭Capillaries‬‭drain‬‭into‬‭larger‬‭vessels=venules→‬‭bigger—>‬‭vein‬ ‭Veins‬‭:‬‭large‬‭floppy‬‭vessel‬‭s‬‭that‬‭carry‬‭blood‬‭back‬‭to‬‭the‬‭heart‬ ‭Blood‬‭in‬‭vers‬‭e‬‭normally‬‭deoxygenated‬ I‭ ‬‭nferior‬‭vena‬‭cava‬‭and‬‭superior‬‭vena‬‭cava‬‭:‬‭two‬‭largest‬‭veins‬‭that‬‭carry‬‭blood‬‭back‬‭to‬‭the‬ ‭heart‬ B‭ lood‬‭:‬‭tissue‬‭with‬‭a‬‭variety‬‭of‬‭cell‬‭functions‬‭(‬‭red,‬‭white‬‭cells,‬‭platelets)‬‭plasma‬‭(dissolved‬ ‭ions,‬‭nutrients,‬‭hormones,‬‭proteins,‬‭etc.)‬ ‭‬ ‭Pumps‬‭blood‬ ‭‬ 4‭ ‬‭chamber‬‭s:‬‭left‬‭and‬‭right‬‭atria‬‭+‬‭left‬‭and‬‭right‬‭ventricles‬ ‭‬ ‭Each‬‭side‬‭contains:‬ ‭○‬ ‭Atrium‬‭-‬‭receives‬‭blood‬‭from‬‭veins+pump‬‭to‬‭ventricles‬ ‭○‬ ‭Ventricle‬‭-‬‭pump‬‭blood‬‭to‬‭distant‬‭tissues‬ ‭○‬ ‭Valves‬‭prevent‬‭blood‬‭from‬‭flowing‬‭backward‬‭through‬‭the‬‭system‬ ‭‬ ‭Between‬‭lung‬‭+‬‭ribcage‬ ‭○‬ ‭A‬‭protective‬‭layer‬‭surrounds‬‭the‬‭heart‬‭:‬‭the‬‭pericardium‬ ‭○‬ ‭Nervous‬‭+‬‭connective‬‭tissue‬‭in‬‭the‬‭heart‬ ‭○‬ ‭Nervous‬‭tissue‬‭is‬‭involved‬‭in‬‭the‬‭beating‬‭of‬‭the‬‭heart‬ ‭○‬ ‭Connective‬‭in‬‭creating‬‭blood‬‭vessels‬‭:‬‭supply‬‭the‬‭heart‬‭with‬‭its‬‭blood‬‭supply‬ ‭4‬‭Chambers‬ ‭-‬ ‭Deoxygenated‬‭blood‬‭flow‬‭s‬‭into‬‭the‬‭heart‬‭from‬‭the‬‭vena‬‭cava‬ -‭ ‬ T‭ hen‬‭enters‬‭the‬‭right‬‭atrium‬‭…storage‬‭chambers‬ ‭-‬ ‭Then‬‭flows‬‭into‬‭the‬‭right‬‭ventricle‬‭that‬‭contracts‬‭and‬‭ejects‬‭blood‬‭into‬‭the‬‭lungs‬ ‭using‬‭pulmonary‬‭arteries.‬ -‭ ‬ ‭Returns‬‭from‬‭lungs‬‭(rich‬‭with‬‭oxygen‬‭)‬ ‭-‬ ‭Enters‬‭left‬‭atrium‬‭(‬‭pools‬‭and‬‭collects‬‭)‬ ‭-‬ ‭Travels‬‭to‬‭left‬‭ventricle‬ ‭-‬ ‭Ejected‬‭to‬‭the‬ ‭body‬‭via‬‭a‬‭massive‬‭artery:‬‭the‬‭aorta‬