General Biology 1 PDF

GENERAL BIOLOGY 1 THE STUDY OF LIFE: BIOLOGY- ‘bios-life”, “logos-study of”. It is the study of life that deals [Toucans have colorful beaks for eating insects or fruits and scaring predators away. with structures, functions of living things, and their relationship with their environment. Humm...

GENERAL BIOLOGY 1 THE STUDY OF LIFE: BIOLOGY- ‘bios-life”, “logos-study of”. It is the study of life that deals [Toucans have colorful beaks for eating insects or fruits and scaring predators away. with structures, functions of living things, and their relationship with their environment. Hummingbirds have pointed beaks to probe tube flowers for sweat nectar] IMPORTANCE OF STUDYING BIOLOGY- Studying biology is crucial for understanding life (4) REPRODUCING AND CONTINUING LIFE- (DEVELOPMENT refers to the defined stages in the life cycle of a living thing from fertilizationto death.) (INTUSSUSCEPTION is a process processes, advancing medical innovations, and informing environmental conservati on. where living things exhibit growth from within the cells)( GROWTH is an increase in size -EARLY BELIEFS ABOUT THE ORIGIN OF LIFE- and volume by converting food to become a part of body cells.), (ACCRETION which is a SPONTANEOUS GENERATION/ABIOGENESIS- idea that life originates from nonliving growth by external addition of substances for nonliving things) [living things- before birth matter. egg & sperm, baby-child-young person-adolescent-adult end up death] BIOGENESIS (Aristotle 4 th-17th century)- belief that lives originates from preexisting life (REPRODUCTION is a process by which genetic information is passed on from one -4 EXPERIMENTS WHO SUPPORTS BIOGENESIS- generation to another as organisms produce offspring) REDI’S EXPERIMENT (Francesco Redi,1668, Italian Physician)- experiment’s meat with (DNA is used as a physical carrier of the transferred genetic information through sexual cover and uncover. The cover had no maggots and flies but the uncover had both. reproduction) Hypothesis was maggots came from flies and right, he concludes that life arose from living Two types of reproduction:(SEXUAL REPRODUCTION is the union of sex cells from two matter not from spontaneous generation or from meet itself. parents produce a unique individual of their kind) (ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION occurs when NEEDHAM’S EXPERIMENT (John Needham, 1748, English Priest who challenge Redi’s an organism makes copies of itself) [ANCESTRAL COLONIAL FLAGELLATE-Metazoa- experiment)- concludes that life in 1 broth/gravy in sealed still bacteria came out was porifera, Eumetazoa-ctenophora, Bilateria-Platyhelmintes, Acoela, Deuterostomia- caused by spontaneous generation but he did not heat it long enough to kill all the microbe Echinodermata, chordata. Lophotrochozoa -rotifera, ectoprocta, brachiopoda, mollusca, in the broth so weak experiment to prove. Annelida. Ecdysozoa-nematoda, antropoda] SPALLAZANI’S EXPERIMENT (Lazzaro Spallanzani, 1767, Italian Scientist who challenged (5) LIVING AND INTERACTING- Living things exhibit a high degree of organization from molecular to cellular level. Life forms a hierarchy of organization from atoms to complex Needham’s experiment)- he boiled enough two water with 1 have cover. The one that multicellular organisms. The immensity of the biological realm can also be views in a have cover had no micro but the one that is open had it. He conclude to support Redi’s horizontal dimension to show the diversity and richness of organisms inhabiting the experiment that life came from preexisting life not spontaneously generation/abiogenesis planet. Biologists classified organisms into three domains based on their similar not support Needham characteristics [Cellular Level-atoms, molecules, macromolecule, organelle, cell], PASTEUR’S EXPERIMENT (Louis Pasteur, 1861)- he experiment 2 jar boiling with 1 not [Organism Level-tissue, organ, organ system, organism][Populational Level- Population, cover but 1 have like a hoss, the hoss stocked air so no micro appear in jar but the one species, community, ecosystem, Biosphere] that is broken appear. Concludes that cells can only arise from pre-existing cells. [PROKARYOTES- bacteria, archaea-monera] [EUKARYOTES- eukarya- protists-plants- CURRENT BELIFS ABOUT THE ORIGIN OF LIFE- fungi-animals-human] DIVINE CREATIONISM/CREATIONISM- life forms and everything in the universe created The six kingdom of the living world divided into three domains of life-( Archaebacteria, by supernatural power than naturalistic mean. (like: god) Eubacteria, Protista, Fungi, Plantae, and Animalia) to bacteria, archea and eukaryote. SPONTANEOUS ORIGIN- life evolved from inanimate/nonliving matter. Miller-Urey BIOLOGY CAREERS IN THE 21ST CENTURY-biotechnology, genetics, environmental believe that lightning helped trigger building blocks of life. science, bioinformatics, biomedical research, neuroscience, and public health. THE CELL AND ITS BEGINNINGS | CELL THEORY AND ITS BEGINNINGS PANSPERMIA- meteor/cosmic dust carried to earth and bring organic molecules then (1)HANS JANSEN AND ZACHARIA JANSEN (1597)- inventors of optical microscope that started the evolution. contributes to easier, practical observing cell. Discovered single cell animal. -UNIFYING THEMES ABOUT LIFE/CHARACTERISTICS SHARED BY LIVING ORGANISMS- (2)ROBERT HOOKE (1665)- coined cell. British Scientist who published Micrographia (1)GATHERING AND USING ENERGY- (CELLULAR RESPIRATION-energy is released by illustrates smallest complete parts of an organism. Looked think slice of corck under breakdown food substances), (ENERGY- ability to do work and allows them to move), microscope seeing honeycomb structure made up of small compartments who alsonamed (COMPLEX ORGANIC MATTER/BIOMOLECULES- energy happen here broken to simple it as cell. substances), (METABOLISM- sum of all chemical processes and energy changes happening (3) ANTONIE VAN LEEUWENHOCK (1670) - Dutch microscopic who first use microscope, inside the body of organism)(NUTRITION- process by which organisms acquire food in order to see living cells under microscope. He also improve the microscope lenses that see single to survive and reproduce)(MODE OF NUTRITION & ENERGY PROCESSING IN SEVERAL celled organisms live in a drop pond of water “animalcules”-“miniature animals”. ORGANISMS-(1) human and animals derive energy indirectly from sun by ingesting food, (4) ROBERT BROWN (1830)- British Botanist who discovered nucleus in plant cell and cell (2)Green plants obtain energy direct sunlight via photosynthesis,(3)Fungi-obtain energy by theory that all of living organism composed of cell and came from pre-existing cell to absorbing from dead/living organisms. [METABOLIC PATHWAY- uses glucose to produce confirm secondary half of the cell theory. ATP which required for many reactions in body], [START- glucose, atp and nad][GLYCOLYSIS- (5) MATTHIAS SCHLEIDEN (1838)- German Botanist together with Schwann proposedall CITRIC ACID CYCLE in mitochondrial matrix-ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN/OXIDE plant tissues are composed of cells. Also he said that embryonic plant arose from a single cell, cell is the building block of all plants. PHOSPHORYLATION in inner mitochondrial membrane end is atp and h2o. Net 30 -32 per (6) THEODOR SCHWANN (1839) - a biologist and physiologist who conclude all animal glucose] [METABOLISM-chemical energy/fats carbo-atp/metabolism-chemical waste] tissues were made of cells as well. (a) all living organisms consists of one or more cells (b) (2) MAINTAINING INTERNAL BALANCE-(HOMEOSTASIS-maintenance of body’s internal the cell is the basic structure for all living organisms environment, state of steady internal physical and chemical condition maintained by living (7) RUDOLF VIRCHOW (1855)- German pathologist Omis Cellula e cellula translates systems),(HORMONES- control function of activities, growth and development), roughly latin “cells only arise from other cells”. (DIFFERENT ORGAN SYSTEM-help control normal processes of heart rate, body (8) ROBERT KOCH (1880)- German doctor, developed staining techniques improved temperature & fluid environment of cell) [HYPOTHALAMUS-regulates temperature and visibility of bacteria under microscope. osmotic pressure], [KIDNEY-maintain water balance], [BLOOD-distributes heat throughout (9) MAX KNOLL & ERNST RUSKA (1931)- build 400x microscope to study inside cell. the body], [EVAPORATION OF WATER-regulates body temperature],[PANCREAS-regulates Overcome the barrier to higher resolution due to the limitation of visible light. blood sugar], [SKELETAL MUSCLE CONTRACTS – release heat (10)- ERNEST EVERETT JUST (1939)- pioneering american-africanbiologist studiedfunction 3. RESPONDING, ADAPTING & EVOLVING (LOCOMOTION/MOTILITY is the movement and structure of cell. from one place to another), (CORALS are attached to a substrate after reaching adulthood CELL THEORY- explained the observation that all compared to their juvenile stage. (PLANTS also show slow movements of body parts like in organisms are composed of cells. All organisms flowers blooming, tendrils clinging for support, shoots bending toward light, and vines composed one or more cells, life processes of creeping as they grow), (MICROORGANISMS also move from place to place using their metabolism occur here. Cells is the smallest living locomotory organs such as cilia, flagella, or pseudopods) [THE CORAL LIFE CYCLE things, the basic units of organization of all 1.Spawning: Corals release eggs and sperm. 2. Larvae: Fertilized eggs become free - organisms. Cells arise by divison of a previously swimming larvae. 3. Settlement: Larvae attach to a surface. 4. Polyp: The attached larvae existing cell “Omni cellula e cellula”. develop into polyps. 5. Growth: Polyps multiply, forming a colony] [VENUS FLYTRAP / PROKARYOTES - are the simplest organism. Bacterial Structure: In bacteria, the Dionaea muscipula), a carnivorous plant, gets ready to snap close as an insect triggers its cytoplasm is surrounded by a plasma membrane Most bacteria possess a cell hair cells within 20 seconds of the first strike] (LIVING THINGS- adapt because their w all, and sometimes also a capsule. The cell w all maintains the shape of the cell. environment constantly changes. Individual adaptation is slower than responding to stimuli, This cell w all is composed of peptidoglycan, which consists of a carbohydrate as some changes require time within the organism) [ATHLETES-Athletes train in higher matrix (polymers of sugars) that is cross-linked by short polypeptide units. In elevation for better endurance. The body will produce more red blood cells in response to bacteria, the DNA is located in a single circular, coiled chromosome that resides in lower oxygen level] (EVOLUTION is the change in a species' traits over time. Evolutionary a region of the cell called the nucleoid. The m any proteins specified by bacterial adaptation is a change in body or behavior to better survive in a new environment) DNA are synthesized on tiny structures called ribosomes. Flagella (singular, [Camouflage is the ability of some animals to change color and body structure in order to flagellum) are long, threadlike structures protruding from the surface of a cell that blend with their environment. It is a way of adaptation to escape predators are used in locomotion. SCEPTION is a process where living things exhibit growth from within the cells)( GROWTH is CAPSULE- gel-like coating outside the cell w all GOLGI APPARATUS SORTS AND PACKAGES PROTEINS - Flattened stacks NUCLEOID- location of the bacterial of membranes form a complex called the Golgi body, or Golgi apparatus The chromosome individual stacks of membrane are called cisternae (Latin, “collecting vessels”), RIBOSOME- site of protein synthesis and they vary in number w ithin the Golgi body. The Golgi apparatus functions in PLASMA MEMBRANE - sheet that the collection, packaging, and distribution of molecules synthesized at one location surrounds the cytoplasm and regulates and used at another w ithin the cell or even outside of it. A Golgi body has a front entrance and exit of molecules and a back, w ith distinctly different membrane compositions at these opposite CELL WALL-structure that provides ends. Protein transport through the endomembrane system: Proteins synthesized support and shapes the cell by ribosomes on the RER are translocated into the internal compartment of the CYTOPLASM- semifluid solution ER. These proteins may be used at a distant location w ithin the cell or secreted surrounded by the plasma membrane; from the cell. They are transported within vesicles that bud off the RER. These contains nucleoid and ribosomes transport vesicles travel to the cis face of the Golgi apparatus. There they can be FLAGELLUM - rotating filament that modified and packaged into vesicles that bud off the trans face of the Golgi propels the cell apparatus Vesicles leaving the trans face transport proteins to other locations in the cell, or fuse w ith the plasma membrane, releasing their contents to the EUKARYOTIC CELLS- are far more complex than prokaryotic cells. The hallmark extracellular environment. of the eukaryotic cell is compartmentalization. This is achieved through a GOLGI APPARATUS- The Golgi apparatus is a smooth, concave, membranous combination of an extensive endomembrane system that w eaves through the cell structure. It receives material for processing in transport vesicles on the cis face interior and by numerous organelles. (nuclear envelope, er, nucleolus, chromatin, and sends the material packaged in transport or secretory vesicles off the trans mitochondrion, nucleous, peroxisome, ribosome, central vacuole, plasma face. The substance in a vesicle could be for export out of the cell or for distribution membrane, cell w all, chloroplast) to another region w ithin the same cell. STRUCTURE OF AN ANIMAL CELL- in this generalized diagram of an animal cell, LYSOSOME CONTAIN DIGESTIVE ENZYMES- Membrane-bounded digestive the plasma membrane encases the cell, w hich contains the cytoskeleton and vesicles, called lysosomes, are also components of the endomembrane system. various cell organelles and interior structures suspended in a semifluid matrix called They contain high levels of degrading enzymes, w hich catalyze the rapid the cytoplasm. Some kinds of animal cells possess fingerlike projections called breakdow n of proteins, nucleic acids, lipids, and carbohydrates. Throughout the microvilli. Other types of eukaryotic cells-for example, many protist cells may lives of eukaryotic cells, lysosomal enzymes break dow n old organelles and possess flagella, w hich aid in movement, or cilia, w hich can have many different recycle their component molecules. functions. PEROXISOME / PEROXIDE UTILIZATION- Peroxisome contains enzymes STRUCTURE OF PLANT CELL- Most mature plant cells contain a large central involved in the oxidation of fatty acids. Peroxisomes get their name from the vacuole, w hich occupies a major portion of the internal volume of the cell, and hydrogen peroxide produced as a by-product of the activities of oxidative enzymes. organelles called chloroplasts, within which photosynthesis takes place. The cells Peroxisomes also contain the enzyme catalase, w hich breaks dow n hydrogen of plants, fungi, and some protists have cell w alls, although the composition of the peroxide into its harmless constituents—water and oxygen. Peroxisomes are w alls varies among the groups. Plant cells have cytoplasmic connections to one spherical organelles that may contain a large crystal structure composed of another through openings in the cell w all called plasmodesmata. Flagella occur in protein. Peroxisomes contain digestive and detoxifying enzymes that produce sperm of a few plant species, but are otherw ise absent from plant and fungal cells. hydrogen peroxide as a by-product. A peroxisome has been colored green in the Centrioles are also usually absent. electron micrograph. Plant cells have specialized membrane-bounded structures NUCLEOUS AS ACT INFORMATION- The largest and most easily seen organelle called vacuoles. Vacuole actually means blank space, referring to its appearance w ithin a eukaryotic cell is the nucleus (Latin, “kernel” or “nut”), first described by the in the light microscope. The membrane surrounding this vacuole is called the Scottish botanist Robert Brow n in 1831. Nuclei are roughly spherical in shape, and tonoplast because it contains channels for w ater that are used to help the cell in animal cells, they are typically located in the central region of the cell. Many nuclei maintain its tonicity, or osmotic balance. The central vacuole. A plant's central exhibit a dark-staining zone called the nucleolus, w hich is a region w here intensive vacuole stores dissolved substances and can expand in size to increase the synthesis of ribosomal RNA is taking place. tonicity of a plant cell. Micrograph show n with false color CHROMATIN & DNA PACKAGING- Deoxyribonucleic Acid. In eukaryotes, the MITOCHONDRIA METABOLIZE SUGAR TO GENERATE ATP- Mitochondria DNA is divided into multiple linear chromosomes, w hich are organized with proteins (singular, mitochondrion) are typically tubular or sausage-shaped organelles about into a complex structure called chromatin. When cells divide, the chromatin must be the size of bacteria that are found in all types of eukaryotic cells Mitochondria are further compacted into a more highly condensed state that forms the X-shaped bounded by tw o membranes: smooth outer membrane, inner folded membrane chromosomes visible in the light microscope. w ith numerous contiguous layers called cristae (singular, crista). NUCLEOLUS (RIBOSOMAL SUBUNIT MANUFACTURING)- ribosomal assembly The cristae partition the mitochondrion into tw o compartments: a matrix, lying areas are easily visible w ithin the nucleus as one or more dark- staining regions inside the inner membrane; intermembrane space, lying betw een the two called nucleoli (singular, nucleolus) mitochondrial membranes. The inner membrane of a mitochondrion is shaped into RIBOSOMES CELL PROTEIN SYNTHESIS MACHINERY- Ribosomes are among folds called cristae that greatly increase the surface area for oxidative metabolism. the most complex molecular assemblies found in cells. Each ribosome is composed A mitochondrion in cross section and cut lengthwise is shown colored red in the of tw o subunits (large and small subunit), each of w hich is composed of a micrograph. combination of RNA called ribosomal RNA (rRNA). Ribosomes can be thought of CHLOROPLAST USE SUNLIGHT TO GENERATE SUGARS AND ATP- as “universal organelles” because they are found in all cell types from all three Chloroplasts contain the photosynthetic pigment chlorophyll that gives most plants domains of life. Ribosomes consist of a large and a small subunit composed of rRNA their green color. The chloroplast, like the mitochondrion, is surrounded by two and protein. The individual subunits are synthesized in the nucleolus and then move membranes chloroplasts have closed compartments of stacked membranes called through the nuclear pores to the cytoplasm, w here they assemble to translate grana (singular, granum), w hich lie inside the inner membrane. each granum may mRNA. Ribosomes serve as sites of protein synthesis. contain from a few to several dozen disk-shaped structures called thylakoids. THE ENDOMEMBRANE SYSTEM- The interior of a eukaryotic cell is packed w ith Surrounding the thylakoid is a fluid matrix called the stroma. chloroplasts, membranes that form an elaborate internal, or endomembrane system. The leucoplasts, and amyloplasts—are collectively called plastids. The inner presence of these membranes in eukaryotic cells marks one of the fundamental membrane of a chloroplast surrounds a membrane system of stacks of closed distinctions betw een eukaryotes and prokaryotes. The largest of the inter nal chlorophyll-containing vesicles called thylakoids, w ithin w hich photosynthesis membranes is called the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). Rough ER (RER), blue in the occurs. Thylakoids are typically stacked one on top of the other in columns called draw ing, is composed more of flattened sacs and forms a compartment throughout grana. The chloroplast has been colored green in the micrograph. the cytoplasm. Ribosomes associated with the cytoplasmic face of the RER extrude 3 TYPES OF FIBERS COMPOSE THE CYTOSKELETON- Actin filaments are new ly made proteins into the interior, or lumen. The smooth ER (SER), green in the long fibers about 7 nm in diameter. Each filament is composed of tw o protein draw ing, is a more tubelike structure connected to the RER. The micrograph has chains loosely tw ined together like tw o strands of pearls (actin) Microtubules, the been colored to match the draw ing largest of the cytoskeletal elements, are hollow tubes about 25 nm in diameter, SMOOTH ER HAS MULTIPLE CHOICE- Regions of the ER w ith relatively few each composed of a ring of 13 protein protofilaments. Intermediate filaments are bound ribosomes are referred to as smooth ER (SER). Enzymes anchored w ithin the most durable element of the cytoskeleton in animal cells is a system of tough, the ER are involved in the synthesis of a variety of carbohydrates and lipids. An fibrous protein molecules tw ined together in an overlapping arrangement. important function of the SER is to store intracellular Ca2+. In muscle cells, for CENTROSOMES ARE MICROTUBULE-ORGANIZING CENTERS- Centrioles example, Ca2+ is used to trigger muscle contraction. Another role of the SER is the are barrel-shaped organelles found in the cells of animals and most protists. They modification of foreign substances to make them less toxic. In the liver, the enzymes occur in pairs, usually located at right angles to each other near the nuclear of the SER carry out this detoxification. membranes.The region surrounding the pair in almost all animal cells is referred ROUGH ER- The rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) gets its name from its pebbly to as a centrosome. Each centriole is composed of nine triplets of microtubules. surface appearance. It appears to be composed primarily of flattened sacs, the Centrioles are usually not found in plant cells. In animal cells they help to organize surfaces of w hich are bumpy w ith ribosomes. The proteins synthesized on the microtubules. surface of the RER are destined to be exported from the cell, sent to lysosomes or vacuoles (described later in this section), or embedded in the plasma membrane. FLAGELLA & CIVILIA AID MOVEMENT- As pairs of microtubules move past each other using arms composed of the motor protein dynein, the eukaryotic flagellum undulates, or w aves up and dow n, rather than rotates. Cilia are short cellular projections that are often organized in row s. A eukaryotic flagellum originates directly from a basal body. The flagellum has tw o microtubules in its core connected by radial spokes to an outer ring of nine paired microtubules w ith dynein arms (9+2 structure). The basal body consists of nine microtubule triplets connected by short protein segments. The structure of cilia is similar to that of flagella, but cilia are usually shorter PLANT CELL WALLS PROVIDES PROTECTION AND SUPPORT- The cells of plants, fungi, and many types of protists have cell w alls, which protect and support the cells. In plants, primary w alls are laid dow n w hen the cell is still grow ing. Betw een the w alls of adjacent cells a sticky substance, called the middle lamella, glues the cells together. Some plant cells produce strong secondary walls, which are deposited inside the primary w alls of fully expanded cells. NUCLEUS: PROKARYOTIC; no true nucleus, nucleoid only. EUKARYOTIC: true nucleus with nuclear membrane. CELL SIZE: PROKARYOTIC; smaller (0.1-5 um), EUKARYOTIC: larger (10-100um). ORGANELLES: PROKARYOTIC:lacks membrane bound. EUKARYOTIC: have membrane bound like mitochondria, er RIBOSOMES: PROKARYOTIC; smaller (70s). EUKARYOTIC: larger (80s) CELL WALL: PROKARYOTIC: mostly present with peptidoglycan (bacteria)/polymers(archea) EUKARYOTIC: present in plant cell w/ cellulose absent in animal DNA STRUCTURE: PROKARYOTIC: circular DNA. EUKARYOTIC: linear DNA in nucleus. REPRODUCTION: PROKARYOTIC; asexual (binary fission). EUKARYOTIC: asexual (mitosis), sexual (meiosis). EXAMPLES: PROKARYOTIC; bacteria and archea EUKARYOTIC: animals, plants, fungi, protists. FLAGELLA: PROKARYOTIC; simple structure. EUKARYOTIC:complex structure CYTOSKELETON: PROKARYOTIC; absent or minimal EUKARYOTIC: present well developed CELL DIVISION: PROKARYOTIC; binary fission EUKARYOTIC: mitosis and meiosis. CELL MEMBRANE: felxible barrier regulates movement of substances in and out maintaining structure and communication. [PROKARYOTE-yes, EUKARYOTE- Prokaryotic Cell: yes, ANIMAL-yes, PLANT-yes] - Capsule: Outer layer for protection. CENTROSOME- organize microbules, for cell division w ith centrioles and protein - Cell Wall: Supports and shapes the cell. matrix [PROKARYOTE-no, EUKARYOTE-yes, ANIMAL-yes, PLANT-yes] - Plasm a Membrane: Controls w hat enters and exits the cell. CHROMATIN- DNA and protein in nucleus. Gene expression and DNA replication. - Pilus: Helps the cell stick to surfaces.. [PROKARYOTE-no, EUKARYOTE-no, ANIMAL-yes, PLANT-yes] - Nucleoid: Area where DNA is found (no nucleus). FLAGELLA & CICILIA- hairlike projections cells’ movement and sensation. Cicilia - Ribosome: Makes proteins. is short, Flagella is long/singular/few.[PROKARYOTE-flagella, EUKARYOTE-yes, - Plasm id: Small DNA pieces for extra traits. ANIMAL-yes, PLANT-no] - Flagellum: Helps the cell move. LYSOSOME- membrane bound contains digestive enzymes, break dow n waste, Anim al Cell: cellular debris. Recycling cellular components and maintaining health. - Mitochondrion: Produces energy (the cell's power plant). [PROKARYOTE-no, EUKARYOTE-yes, ANIMAL-yes, PLANT-no] - Peroxisome: Breaks down harmful substances. MICROFILAMENTS & MICROTUBULES- Microfilaments (thin, flexible fiber - Lysosome: Digests w aste and old cell parts. enable cell movement), Microtubules (rigid, tube, cell shape and intracellular - Vacuole: Stores nutrients and w aste. transport) [PROKARYOTE-no, EUKARYOTE-yes, ANIMAL-yes, PLANT-yes] - Cytoskeleton: Supports the cell’s shape and movement. NUCLEAR ENVELOPE- double membrane protects nucleus in eurkaryotic. - Centrosome: Helps in cell division. [PROKARYOTE-no, EUKARYOTE-yes, ANIMAL-yes, PLANT-yes] - Plasm a Membrane: Controls w hat enters and exits the cell. VESICLES- small, membrane-bound sacs w ithin eukaryotic transport and store - Nucleus: Contains DNA and controls cell activities. substances not present in prokaryotic. [PROKARYOTE-some, EUKARYOTE-yes, - Nucleolus: Makes ribosomes. ANIMAL-yes, PLANT-yes] - Rough ER: Has ribosomes and makes proteins. PEROXISOME- small membrane bound, break dow n fatty acids and detoxify - Ribosomes: Makes proteins. harmful substances like hydrogen peroxide. [PROKARYOTE-no, EUKARYOTE- - Sm ooth ER: Makes lipids (fats) and detoxifies substances. yes, ANIMAL-yes, PLANT-yes] - Golgi Apparatus: Modifies and ships proteins and lipids. NUCLEAR PORE- large protein in nuclear envelope in eukaryotic cell. Exchange Plant Cell: molecules, RNA and protein, betw een nucleus and cytoplasm. [PROKARYOTE- - Nucleus: Contains DNA and controls cell activities. no, EUKARYOTE-yes, ANIMAL-yes, PLANT-yes] - Nucleolus: Makes ribosomes. NUCLEOID-NUCLEOID REGION- region in prokaryotic cell, circular DNA located. - Ribosome: Makes proteins. lacks in membrane and found in cell’s cytoplasm. [PROKARYOTE-yes, - Rough and Sm ooth ER: Rough makes proteins, smooth makes lipids and EUKARYOTE-no, ANIMAL-no, PLANT-no] detoxifies. CAPSULE- a bacterial capsule thick, protective layer in bacteria imune system, - Golgi Apparatus: Modifies and ships proteins and lipids. increase ability to cause disease. [PROKARYOTE-yes, EUKARYOTE-no, - Cell Wall: Supports and protects the cell. ANIMAL-no, PLANT-no] - Cell Membrane: Controls w hat enters and exits the cell. PILI AND FIMBRIAE- Pili is hair like projections exhange genetic material - Peroxisome: Breaks down harmful substances. (conjugation) Fimbriae is shorter and more helps adherence surface and tiss ues. - Chloroplast: Conducts photosynthesis (makes food from sunlight). [PROKARYOTE-yes, EUKARYOTE-no, ANIMAL-no, PLANT-no] - Am yloplast: Stores starch. Room for extra energy food. ENDOSYMBIOTIC THEORY- Lynn Margulis, 1960 The endosymbiotic theory - Mitochondrion: Produces energy. suggests that some of the organelles in eukaryotic cells, like mitochondria and - Vacuole: Stores nutrients, waste, and helps maintain cell shape. chloroplasts, w ere once free-living bacteria. A long time ago, these bacteria were - Cytoskeleton: Supports the cell’s shape and movement. absorbed by a larger cell, and instead of being destroyed, they formed a partnership. Over time, they became a permanent part of the cell, helping it produce energy (mitochondria) or carry out photosynthesis (chloroplasts). This theory explains how complex cells may have evolved from simpler ones.  TRACHEIDS- Elongated, tapered cells with thick, lignified walls and pits for lateral water movement. PLANT CELL: Function: Transport w ater and provide structural support. PEROXISOME- small organelles break dow n fatty acids detoxify hydrogen VESSEL ELEMENTS- Shorter, wider cells with perforated end w alls for efficient w ater flow. Function: peroxide. Oxidative stress and lipids metabolism Transport w ater more rapidly than tracheids VACUOLE- membrane bound organelle, various functions: storing nutrients, CUTICLE- which is a waxy coating that further reduces water loss w aste products, pressure. DERMAL- which replaces the epidermis in older regions of the plant. NUCLEAR PORE- channel in nuclear envelope, betw een nucleus and cytoplasm, PERIDERM- involv ed in the transport of sugars and other nutrients. STOMATA- are small openings in the epidermis that allow gas exchange in and out of RNA & proteins. LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION - Atom → Molecule → Macromolecule → Organelle → Cell → Tissue PLASTIDS- functions is for photosynthesis, storage and pigments. → Organ → Organ Sy stem → Organism CHROLOPLAST- (photosynthesis) contains chlorophyll w here photosynthesis GERMS LAYERS IN DEVELOPING EMBRYO converts light to glucose and oxygen as energy. 1. ECTODERM: Forms skin, nervous system. CHROMOPLAST- storing pigments, giving fruits colors. 2. ENDODERM: Forms gut lining, liver, lungs. LEUCOPLAST- type of plastid storage and biosynthesis, typically colorless due to 3.MESODERM : Forms muscles, bones, kidneys, blood, reproductive organs, connective tissues. lack of pigments. TISSUE TYPES IN HUMANS AND ANIMALS AMYLOPLAST-store starch, polysaccharide made of glucose found in roots, 1. EPITHELIAL: Covers surfaces, lines organs. Functions: protection, absorption, secretion, excretion. - SIMPLE (1 layer) vs. STRATIFIED (many layers) tubers, seeds non photosynthetic tissues. - SHAPES SQUAMOUS (flat), CUBOIDAL (cube), COLUMNAR (tall) ELAIOPLAST- store oils and lipids, found in seds and other tissues reserve NAMING- “layers of cell”+”ciliated(columnar)/nonciiated(non columnar) or what shape if not energy for fats. so”+”epithelium” PROTEINOPLAST- store and modifies protein. Found in seeds, other tissues 2. CONNECTIVE: Supports and binds (e.g., bone, tendon, fat). requires protein storage. 3. MUSCLE: Enables movement (skeletal, cardiac, smooth). PLASMODESMATA- small channels in cell w all, for direct communications, 4. NERVOUS: Conducts signals (brain, spinal cord, nerves). transports of substances and share nutrients and other signals for molecules. (1)SIMPLE SQUAMOUS EPITHELIUM- Single lay er flat (hex agonal cells)Nuclei cross section. TYPES OF PLANT TISSUES Diffusion, Filtration, Some secretion, protection against friction. Lining blood v essels and heart, MERISTEMATIC TISSUES- undifferentiated cells that divide and for plant growth. ly mphatic vessels (endothelium), small ducts, lungs, kidney, body cavities, tympanic membranes. It founded in roots and shoots (apical meristems), cambium (lateral meristems). It (2)SIMPLE CUBOIDAL EPITHELIUM)- single layer, cube shapes, microvilli (kidney) cilia in lungs, is small, densely packed w ith large nuclei and thin w alls and continuously divide to secretion of kidney tubules, glands and their ducts, choroid plexuses of brain, lining lungs, ovaries produce new cells. (3) SIMPLE COLUMNAR EPITHELIUM- single lay er, tall narrow , bronchioles of lungs, utrine, APICAL MERISTEMS- tips of roots and shoots. Primary grow th or elongation of intestines. Movement of oarticles, out of bronchioles of lungs, oocytes through uterine tubes, secretion of cell glands, stomach absorption cells, small large intestines. Bronchioles of lungs, uterine tubes, the plant’s length. Roots deeper to soil, shoots grow taller. brain, bile ducts, stomach, auditory tubes INTERCALARY MERISTEMS- Found at base of leaves or internodes (region (4)STRATIFIED SQUAMOUS EPITHELIUM- multiple lay er cube shaped cells, nucleus and betw een nodes where leaves attach to the stem) at grass and other monocots. cy toplasm, keratin dead cells. Protect against abrasion, barrier to infection, reduce loss w ater. Grow th of leaves and internodes. Regeneration of grass when cut. Keratinized in skin, non keratinized mouth, throat, anus, vagina, inferior urethra, cornea. LATERAL MERISTEMS- found at side of stems and (5) STRATIFIED CUBOIDAL EPITHELIUM- multiple layers, cube shaped. Secrete, absorb, protect roots. For secondary growth of thickness of plant. More against infections, seat glands, ovarian, saliv ary gland ducts. prominent in w oody plants. TYPES: Vascular Cambium (6)STRATIFIED COLUMNAR EPIHELIUM- multiple lay ers and tall, lary nx. Protect and secrete. (produce new xylem or w ood, and phloem (inner Mammary gland ducts, larynx, portion of male urethra. bark)contributes to thickening of stem and roots) Cork (7)PSEUDOSTRATIFIIED COLUMNAR EPITHELIUM- single lay er, tall, ciliated, sy nthesize and Cambium (produce cork cells as protective layer of bark secrete mucus onto the free surface. Fluid, lining of nasal cav ity , nasal sinuses, auditory tubes, in w oody plants). phary nx, trachea, bronchia of lungs MERISTEMATIC CELLS- specialized plant cell for grow th and development of (8) (TRANSITIONAL EPITHELIUM)-stratfied, cube cells, num lay ers decreases w hen stretched, plants. Undifferentiated and capable of continuous division and differentiation into fluctuations v olume of tubes, protect against effects of urine. Lining urinary, bladder, superior urethra. various types of plant tissues VERTEBRATES (BACKBONE) - Reptiles: Cold-blooded, dry eggs (snake, crocodile) - Birds: Warm- VASCULAR CAMBIUM - Secondary growth increases the thickness of stems and blooded, feathers (w ren, swan) - Fis h: Cold-blooded, gills (shark, tuna - Mammals: Warm-blooded, milk (cow, humans) - Amphibians: Cold-blooded, lay eggs in water (frog, newt) roots INVERTEBRATES (NO BACKBONES) - Protozoa: Microscopic, single-celled - Coelenterates: Soft, GROUND TISSUES- includes support, storage, and photosynthesis, they stinging cells (jelly fish) - Flatworms: Soft, simple (tapeworm) - Annelid worms: Segmented (earthworm) encompasses several types such as parenchyma, collenchyma, and sclerenchyma - Molluscs: Soft, often shelled (snail) - Echinoderms: Spiny (starfish) (thicker) ARTHROPODS (JOINTED LIMBS, EXOSKELETON): - Arachnids: 8 legs (spider) - Crustaceans: PARENCHYMA CELLS- fundamental plant cell that has middle layer of tissues , Many legs (lobster) - Insects: 6 legs, wings (bee) - Myriapods: Many legs (centipede) such photosynthesis, storage and tissue repair, its thin primary cell walls ability to EPITHELIAL TISSUE EXAMPLES - PROTECTION: Skin- ABSORPTION: Intestines- SECRETION: divide and differentiate into other cell types. Thy roid, liv er - FILTRATION: Kidneys COLLENCHYMA CELLS- unevelenly thickened primary w alls, flexible structural MEMBRANES: - Epithelial lay er + connectiv e tissue forms protectiv e and functional barriers support to grow ing parts of the plant such as stem and leaves. depending on location. SCLERENCHYMA CELLS- rigid plant cells w ith thick, lignified secondary walls, CONNECTIVE TISSUES TYPES- Loose, Dense, Specialized (cartilage, bone, blood) strong structural support includes elongated fibers for tensile strength and sclereids LOOSE CONNECTIVE- Beneath skin/organs; supports, insulates, stores food. Cells: Fibroblasts, fat for various shapes and functions. cells DENSE CONNECTIVE- Tendons, skin, organs; strong, flexible. Cells: Fibroblasts PITH- central, spongy tissue in stem and roots involved in storing nutrients and CARTILAGE- Joints, ears; shock absorption, flexible. Cells: Chondrocytes providing structural support. BONE- Skeleton; protection, support. Cells: Osteocytes CORTEX- key component of plant ground tissue located betw een (epidermis -outer BLOOD- Circulatory system; transport, immune function. Cells: Red & white blood cells layer), (vascular tissues- xylem and phloem) in stems and roots. Various roles MUSCLE TISSUE depends on plant types and its specific needs. SKELETAL- Attached to bones; voluntary movement. DERMAL TISSUES- It serves as the outer protective covering of the plant. It is SMOOTH- Blood v essels, digestiv e tract; involuntary movement. primarily responsible for protecting the plant from physical damage and w ater loss. CARDIAC- Heart; involuntary contraction. The dermal tissue consists of the epidermis in non-w oody plants and the periderm NERVOUS TISSUE in w oody plants. NEURONS- Transmit signals. Parts: Cell body, dendrites, axon, myelin. GUARD CELLS (sw ollen) is opening and GUARD CELLS (shrunken) is closing. GLIAL CELLS- Support, protect neurons. VESSEL ELEMENTS- are long, tube-like cells in the xylem that conduct w ater. NEURON TYPES EPIDERMIS- the outermost layer of cells in non-w oody plants. It covers the entire SENSORY NEURONS- Detect stimuli (eyes, skin). surface of the plant and can consist of a single layer or multiple layers of cells. MOTOR NEURONS- Control muscles (brain, spinal cord). VASCULAR TISSUES- are specialized plant tissues responsible for the transport INTERNEURONS- Process information (brain, spinal cord). of w ater, nutrients, and organic compounds throughout the plant. They are crucial CELLULOSE-Plant fiber that prov ides structure. Giv es plants rigidity.LIGNIN- Substance in woody for the plant's overall growth and health, allowing it to thrive in various environments. plants that strengthens cell w alls. Adds strength and waterproofing.DETRITIVORE- Organisms that XYLEM- Vascular tissue in plants that transports w ater and minerals from roots to eat dead matter. Recy cle nutrients.CAROTENOID- Plant pigments that prov ide color. Help w ith other parts, providing structural support through cells like tracheids and vessels. photosy nthesis.UNDIFFERENTIATED - Cells that can become any cell type. Important for growth and Start in roots to other parts healing.PLURIPOTENT- Cells that can turn into many types. Key for development.TROPISM- Plant PHLOEM- Vascular tissue in plants responsible for transporting organic nutrients, grow th response to stimuli (like light). Helps plants grow towards resources.WOODY- Describes plants mainly sugars, from leaves to other parts of the plant, using cells such as sieve tube w ith hard stems. Provides support.PHOTOTROPISM- Growth towards light. Maximizes sunlight for elements and companion cells. Starts in leaves. photosy nthesis.HYDROTROPISM- Growth tow ards water. Guides roots to moisture.SYMBIOSIS- ILLUSTRATION- A cross-section of flax showing pith (P), xylem (X), phloem (P), Interaction betw een different organisms. Can benefit one or both.MYCORRHIZAE-Fungi that connect bast fibers (BF, also called phloem fibers or phloem sclerenc hyma), cortex (C), and w ith plant roots. Improve nutrient and water uptake.WOOD WIDE WEB- Underground network of roots epidermis (Ep). Bast fibers from flax are harvested to produce linen. and fungi. Helps plants communicate and share nutrients. TRACHEIDS- Elongated, tapered cells w ith thick, lignified w alls and pits for lateral Locations: Remember key examples; e.g., lungs (simple squamous), skin (stratified squamous). CELL DIVISION- produces 2 new cells with same genetic information as the original. BACTERIAL CELL DIVISION-during binary fission, the chromosome is replicated, tw o products are partitioned to each end of the cell prior to the actual division of cell. (1) DNA (double stranded circular w/ genome) molecules replicates , begins at - The METAPHASE PLATE is an imaginary plane perpendicular to the spindle axis a specific site “the origin of replication”. that passes through the center of the chromosomes. - Chromosomes are arrayed in a circle at the metaphase plate, equidistant from the (2) Enzymes move from that site of DNA. Enzymes continue until they meet poles, w ith microtubules extending tow ard the poles. another specific site”terminus” of replication. M PHASE: ANAPHASE (3) The cell elongates. Origin of DNA is ¼ and ¾ positioned in the cell. Termini - ANAPHASE begins w hen the proteins holding sister chromatids together at the are oriented tow ards middle the cell. centromere are removed. (4) Dividing begins w hich new membrane and cell wall begins to grow and - The key event is the simultaneous removal of these proteins from all form septum the one divides them at midpoint of cell. Cell membrane now chromosomes, and the sister chromatids are pulled tow ard the poles. contains Ftsz- filamenting temperature sensitive mutant z (protein - In ANAPHASE A, kinetochores are pulled tow ard the poles as microtubules molecule) that facilitates the final division. shorten. (5) Septum is complete, cells becomes 2 as the 2 daughter that each contain - In ANAPHASE B, the poles move apart as microtubular spindle fibers slide past DNA molecule. each other, moving aw ay from the cell center. Homologous chromosomes EUKARYOTIC CHROMOSOMES TELOPHASE: The phase w here the spindle apparatus disassembles, and a nuclear CHROMOSOMES-German Embryologist cohesin envelope forms around each set of sister chromatids, now called chromosomes. kinetochore “Walther Flemming” (1843-1905) in 1879 proteins The chromosomes begin to uncoil to allow gene expression. w hile examining the salamander larvae s CYTOKINESIS: The process w here the cell divides into tw o roughly equal halves, that rapidly dividing. Chromosome number marking the actual division of the cell. may very on different species. centromere SPINDLE APPARATUS: A structure that disassembles during telophase, with its microtubules broken dow n into tubulin monomers. MITOSIS (w ord origin)- named by NUCLEAR ENVELOPE: A membrane that reforms around each set of Flemming. Greek w ord “mitos” as thread. Sister chromatids chromosomes during telophase. HOMOLOGOUS CHROMOSOMES- maternal and paternal copies of same UNCOILING: The process where chromosomes revert to a more extended form chromosomes after telophase, enabling gene expression. SISTER CHROMATIDS- tw o replicas of a single chromosome held at centromeres CONTROL POINTS: Specific checkpoints in the cell cycle w here it can be paused by cohesion proteins. to respond to internal or external signals. KINETOCHORE- composed of proteins found at centromere attached to REPLICATION: One of the irreversible points in the cell cycle, where the genetic microtubules during mitosis material is duplicated. SEPARATION: Another irreversible point in the cell cycle, involving the division of LONG DOUBLE STRANDED DNA MOLECULE- a long contains in chromosome, sister chromatids. further packaging to fit cell nucleus. MATURATION-PROMOTING FACTOR (MPF): A protein that regulates the cell CHROMOSOMES- A structure composed of long double-stranded DNA molecules cycle by phosphorylating other proteins. Its activity peaks during mitosis. that are packaged to fit into the cell nucleus. G2 PHASE: A phase in the cell cycle where MPF activity is low but rises as the cell HISTONES- Proteins that DNA binds to and w raps around, aiding in the packaging progresses toward mitosis. of DNA. PHOSPHORYLATION: The process by w hich MPF adds a phosphate group to NUCLEOSOMES- The basic units of chromosomal organization, consisting of DNA proteins to regulate their activity. w rapped around histones. CHECKPOINTS: Stages in the cell cycle where progression can be halted to ensure SOLENOID- A higher-order structure formed by the coiling of nucleosomes. proper conditions are met before continuing. LOOPED DOMAINS- Structures formed by the further organization of the solenoid PROGESTERONE: A hormone that, in experiments, induces the production of MPF into loops. and promotes oocyte maturation. MITOTIC CHROMOSOMES- Highly condensed chromosomal structures present MATURATION-PROMOTING FACTOR (MPF): A protein that regulates the cell during cell division, though their precise organization is still unknow n. cycle, particularly during mitosis, w ith activity varying throughout the cycle, being KARYOTYPE:The complete set of chromosomes in an individual organism. low in early G2 and peaking in mitosis. It phosphorylates proteins to facilitate cell HAPLOID (N): Cells that contain only one set of chromosomes. cycle progression. DIPLOID (2N): Cells that contain tw o sets of chromosomes. For humans, the haploid PHOSPHORYLATION: The addition of phosphate groups to proteins by MPF, number is 23, and the diploid number is 46. crucial for regulating their activity and controlling the cell cycle. G1 (GAP PHASE 1): The primary grow th phase, filling the gap betw een cytokinesis CHECKPOINTS: Specific points in the cell cycle that monitor and regulate and DNA synthesis. progression. The three main checkpoints are: S (SYNTHESIS PHASE): The phase w here DNA is replicated, producing tw o sister - G1/S CHECKPOINT: The point w here the cell decides w hether to divide, chromatids. assessing growth factors, nutritional state, and cell size. G2 (GAP PHASE 2): The second growth phase, where the cell prepares for mitosis, - G2/M CHECKPOINT: Verifies successful DNA replication and checks DNA and the spindle apparatus begins to form. integrity before mitosis. MITOSIS: The phase w here replicated chromosomes are separated into daughter - SPINDLE CHECKPOINT: Ensures all chromosomes are properly attached to cells, subdivided into:PROPHASE PROMETAPHASE, METAPHASE, ANAPHASE, the spindle before anaphase. TELOPHASE CDK (CYCLIN-DEPENDENT KINASE): A protein kinase that activates various CYTOKINESIS: The division of the cytoplasm, resulting in tw o daughter cells. proteins through phosphorylation, essential for cell cycle progression. CDKs form INTERPHASE (PREPARATION FOR MITOSIS): complexes w ith cyclins. 1. G1 PHASE: Major cell grow th. CYCLIN: A regulatory protein required for activating CDKs. The cyclin-CDK 2. S PHASE: Each chromosome replicates to form tw o sister chromatids attached at complex is crucial for promoting the cell cycle. the CENTROMERE. G1/S CHECKPOINT: Assesses external factors like grow th signals and cell size to 3. G2 PHASE: Chromosomes become more tightly coiled. determine w hether the cell should proceed w ith division. 4. CENTROMERE: The region on a chromosome w here sister chromatids are held G2/M CHECKPOINT: Checks for the successful completion of DNA replication and together, containing DNA sequences that bind proteins. the integrity of the DNA before the cell enters mitosis. 5. KINETOCHORE: A disk-like structure formed at the centromere, w here SPINDLE CHECKPOINT: Ensures that all chromosomes are correctly attached to microtubules attach to separate chromosomes during mitosis. the spindle apparatus at the metaphase plate before proceeding to anaphase. 6. COHESIN PROTEINS: Proteins that hold sister chromatids together at the CDK1/CYCLIN B: A specific cyclin-CDK complex that regulates the G2/M centromere. checkpoint, ensuring that DNA replication is complete and that the DNA is intact. M PHASE: PROPHASE CDK2/CYCLIN E: A specific cyclin-CDK complex involved in the G1/S checkpoint, - The condensation process continues throughout PROPHASE. Chromosomes start assessing conditions necessary for cell division. as minute threads and appear bulkier by the end of this phase. APC (ANAPHASE PROMOTING COMPLEX): A protein complex that becomes - RIBOSOMAL RNA SYNTHESIS ceases w hen the chromosome portion w ith rRNA active at the spindle checkpoint to ensure that all chromosomes are properly genes condenses. attached before separation during anaphase. - The SPINDLE APPARATUS begins to assemble, w hich will later separate the sister chromatids. - ASTER: An arrangement w here the centrioles extend a radial array of microtubules tow ard the nearby plasma membrane w hen they reach the poles of the cell. - During spindle formation, the NUCLEAR ENVELOPE breaks dow n, and the endoplasmic reticulum reabsorbs its components. M PHASE: METAPHASE - The alignment of chromosomes in the center of the cell signals METAPHASE, the second stage of mitosis.