BIO1015_C1_C5 Reading Study Notes.docx

Use to Guide Reading: Anatomy & Physiology for Health Professions: An Interactive Journey Chapter 1 - Medical Terminology =============================== - Understand the terms **anatomy** and **physiology** and how they are interrelated. - **Anatomy** is the study of the internal and external structures of the human body. a. Prefix ana: apart Suffix: tomy: surgically remove or cut Anatomy is the Greek word meaning "cut apart" b. Prefix micro: small c. Prefix macro: large d. Suffix scopic: study e. Prefix: cyto: cell f. Prefx: histo: tissue g. Suffix: logy: study of - **Physiology** focuses on the functions and processes of the various structures that make up the human body. Physiologic processes include, for example, muscle contraction, or senses of smell ad sight, and how we breathe. - [Physiology is closely related to anatomy because physiology is the study of how a structure (anatomy) such as a cell or bone actually functions (physiology).] - Physiology deals with all the vital processes of life and is more complex, with more subspecialities. - Subspecialities include: - Human physiology - Animal physiology - Cellular physiology - Neurophysiology. - **Anatomy focuses on structures and how something is put together.** - **Physiology is the study of how these different structures work together to make the body function as a whole.** - **The design of the structure is often related to its function** - **Human Anatomy and physiology form the foundation for all medical practice.** - **Anything that upsets normal structure or function can be called a [disease.]** - **[Pathophysiology] is the study of disease.** Therefore, it makes sense to combine these two sciences into anatomy and physiology (A&P). Human anatomy and physiology forms the foundation for all medical practice. Anything that negatively changes the normal structure or function can be called *disease*, and the study of disease is *pathophysiology*. **Medical Terminology:** - **Adeno: Gland** - **Glyco: Sugar** - **Erythro: Red** - **Leuko: White** - **Neuro: Nerve** - **Phago: To swallow** - **A, an: Without** - **Dia: Through** - **Dys: Difficult** - **Electro: Electricity** - **Endo: Within** - **Epi: Upon or Over** - **Al, ic: pertaining or related to** - **Algia: Pain** - **Graphy: Process of recording** - **Ist -- One who specializes** - **Osis: Disease or condition of** - **Otomy: Cutting into** - **Penia: Decrease or lack of** **- If a suffix begins with a vowel, drop the vowel in the combining form.** **- The medical definition indicates the last part of the term first, especially when suffixes are used** **- Example:** **Inflammation of the stomach is [gastr]itis not itisgast** **One who studies the stomach is a [gastro]logist not a ologistgastro** **- When using prefixes, put the part in order you say the definition.** **- Example:** **Slow heart rate is brady[cardia]** **Points of Interest** - Anatomy is the study of the actual internal and external structures of the body, and physiology is the study of how these structures normally function. [Pathology](https://plus.pearson.com/courses/urn:xl-hed:course:7987374/products/72N23LI7V1Q/pages/Z08_COLB6818_04_SE_GLOS.xhtml#gloss_762) is the study of the disease processes by which abnormal structures and abnormal body functions can occur. - Medical terminology is the language of medicine and combines word roots, prefixes, and suffixes to construct numerous medical terms to describe conditions, locations, diagnostic tools, and so on. - [The metric system (Systeme International) is the mathematical language of medicine based on powers of 10 (used to measure weight, length and volume)]. If you require more practice with this system, please go to your student Study Success Companion at the end of this text for a simplified review. - A change in objective measurable values such as temperature (signs) and subjective patient perceptions (symptoms) can indicate a disease is present. Vital signs are pulse, respirations, temperature, and blood pressure. - Patients will present with a chief complaint/concern and signs and symptoms that will aid in the identification, better known as the diagnosis, of the disease or condition. Patient history and results of diagnostic tests will also aid in diagnosis. Other related terms include determining the cause or etiology of the disease. In addition, it is helpful to determine if the condition had a rapid onset (acute condition) or if it was a gradual process (chronic condition). - The body tries to maintain a balanced or stable environment called homeostasis. It must constantly **Signs and symptoms of Disease** Symptoms are more subjective and difficult to measure consistently. A set of signs and symptoms that commonly occur with a specific disease process is called a **syndrome** **Dia/gnosis -- Translates as know through or completely** **Dia: Through** **Gnosis: Knowledge, or to know** Chronic conditions \- Gradual onset \- Symptoms may disappear (Remission) \- Symptoms may recur (Relapse) Acute conditions: \- Rapid onset of signs and symptoms **[Metabolic Syndrome X]** -- Is a syndrome that affects nearly ¼ (one quarter) of the US adult populace. Individuals who exhibit this syndrome are at increased risk for a form of diabetes, heart attack, and/or stroke. This syndrome is a result of poor diet and lack of exercise and leaves people at increased risk of diabetes and heart attack. - High blood sugar levels (hyperglycemia) - High blood pressure (hypertension) - Abdominal obesity - High triglycerides - Low blood levels of H D L (good cholesterol) a negative feedback loop (resisting change or homeostasis) is a physiologic response that works against the trend and most often brings a variable back to a set point (think thermostat). For example, as blood pressure rises, heart rate may decrease to bring blood pressure back down a positive feedback loop (increasing the magnitude of change) is a vicious cycle. During positive feedback, physiological processes send body chemistry or other attributes moving further and further away from equilibrium (or set point). The trend will continue until something breaks the cycle. Positive feed back loops may be necessary for a process to run to completion (such as uterine contractions during labor). prognosis is the prediction of the likely outcome of a medical condition while diagnosis is the process of identifying a disease. Metabolism is the process of using oxygen and glucose to produce energy for cells. It also produces by-products like carbon dioxide and other waste products. This is known as the ongoing cycle of anabolism and catabolism. Anabolism is the assembly of new molecules in the body. Catabolism is the breakdown of molecules in the body. Bizarre Signs and Symptoms! --------------------------- Here are some strange signs and symptoms that have been indications of diseases. Please note that there are other signs, symptoms, and tests to determine specific diseases. Please do not use this list of oddities as a sole diagnostic tool! 1. Generalized itching skin of unknown origin can be an indication of Hodgkin's disease. 2. Sweating at night may indicate tuberculosis. 3. A desire to eat clay or starchy paste may indicate an iron deficiency in the body. 4. Breath that smells like fruit-flavored chewing gum or nail polish remover may be an indication of diabetes. 5. A magenta-colored tongue may be indicative of a riboflavin deficiency. 6. A patient with profound kidney disease often doesn't have moons (lunula) on the fingernails. 7. A "hairy" tongue may mean that a patient's normal mouth [flora](https://plus.pearson.com/courses/urn:xl-hed:course:7987374/products/72N23LI7V1Q/pages/Z08_COLB6818_04_SE_GLOS.xhtml#gloss_391) has died from improper use of antibiotics and a yeast infection is now present. 8. Spoon-shaped fingernails may point to an iron deficiency in the body. 9. Brown linear streaks on the fingernails of fair-skinned people may indicate melanoma (skin cancer). 10. Having trouble smelling peanut butter from a distance? Recent studies show difficulty in smelling peanut butter from a foot away can indicate early stages of Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, or even multiple sclerosis. 11. If you have a stabbing pain in your heel and haven't stepped on a sharp object, you could have a herniated disc. This is because the sciatic nerve runs from your back to your heel. 12. Hiccups lasting more than 48 hours could be a sign of lung or esophageal cancer. 13. A newfound urge to steal may be one of the early signs of a specific type of dementia. (Please do not use this as a defense in a court of law!) Use to Guide Reading: Anatomy & Physiology for Health Professions: An Interactive Journey Chapter 2 ========= **[Anatomical position]** -- standing erect, face forward, with feet parallel and arms hanging at the side with palms facing forward. **[Supine (also known as dorsal supine position or dorsal decubitus)]** -- patient is lying face upward, on their back. Used for examination of the anterior/ventral aspect of the body. **[Prone]** -- patient is lying on their stomach, back facing the ceiling. Used for back examinations, certain types of surgery. Not used for patient's with breathing problems, late-term pregnancy, or the elderly. **[Trendelenburg]** -- the head of the bed is lower than the patient's feet. This position is used to help move secretions from various regions of the patient's lungs. May be used for patients in shock or with low blood pressure or for abdominal surgery. Although this is therapeutic, certain precautions must be taken. Because the patient's head is lower than the heart, gravity increases the blood flow to the head, and therefore intracranial pressure increases. This position is contraindicated in patients with recent eye surgery or cerebral injuries or bleeding. **[Fowler's]** -- The patient Is sitting with the head of bed elevated. This position is often used in the hospital to facilitate breathing and for comfort of bedridden patients while eating or talking. **[High Fowlers:]** Head of bed is elevated to a 90-degree angle -- used for examinations of the head, neck, and upper body. **[Semi Fowler's:]** Head of bed is elevated to a 45-degree angle. Used for postsurgical examinations, patient's with breathing difficulties or lower back injuries. **[Sims]**'**(lateral recumbent)** -- Medical position where a patient lies on their left side with their left leg straight and their right leg bent. Also known as the lateral recumbent position. Often used for rectal/vaginal examinations and treatments as well as for administering enemas, curettage of the uterus, intrauterine irrigation after labor, flexible sigmoidoscopy, colonoscopy, and postanesthesa recovery. It is also one of the traditional methods for childbirth. **[Knee-chest position]** -- The knee-chest position is a position involving bringing the knees to the chest. Individuals will be asked to [flex](https://www.osmosis.org/learn/Diagnosing_cranial_somatic_dysfunction) (i.e., bend) their hips and knees so that their knees reach their chest; the hips may also be abducted (i.e., away from the midline). An individual who is assuming the knee-chest position can be either prone (i.e., lying on the stomach) or [supine](https://www.osmosis.org/learn/Other_cervical_spine_treatments) (i.e., lying on the back). Used most often in OBGYN during delivery as well as to reposition the baby when breech **[Lithotomy]** - position is a common position for surgical procedures and medical examination of the pelvis, lower abdomen, and reproductive organs. In the lithotomy position, patients are placed on their back with feet elevated (usually in stirrups). This is also the traditional position for childbirth in Western nations (gynecologic examinations). **[Dorsal recumbent]**: Lying supine, knees bent (flexed), feet flat on the exam table. Used for surgical procedures and exams of the vagina and rectum. **Directional terms:** - **Superior (cranial or cephalic):** toward the head or upper body. - **Inferior (caudal):** Away from the head or toward the lower part of the body. - **Anterior (ventral):** Toward or on the front of the body. - **Posterior (dorsal):** Toward or on the back of your body. - **Medial:** Located near the midline or middle of the body. - **Lateral:** Located away from the midline. - **Reference point:** This position is often used in the hospital to facilitate breathing and for comfort of bedridden patients while eating or talking. - **Proximal:** Located closest to a point of reference of the body. **- Distal:** Located furthest away from the point of reference of the body. **-** **External:** Structures located on the outside. **-** **Internal:** Structures located on the inside. **-** **Superficial:** Toward or at the body's surface. **- Deep:** Away from the body's surface. **- Central:** Locations near the center of the body (torso and head). **-** **Peripheral**: Refers to extremities (arms and legs) or the surrounding or outer regions of the body. **- central cyanosis:** Presents as a bluish discoloration of the torso and inside the mouth. **-** **peripheral cyanosis:** Presents as bluish fingers and toes. **Body Planes:** - **[transverse plane](https://plus.pearson.com/courses/urn:xl-hed:course:7987374/products/72N23LI7V1Q/pages/Z08_COLB6818_04_SE_GLOS.xhtml#gloss_1076) (or [horizontal plane](https://plus.pearson.com/courses/urn:xl-hed:course:7987374/products/72N23LI7V1Q/pages/Z08_COLB6818_04_SE_GLOS.xhtml#gloss_468)) dividing the body into superior and inferior sections. This can also be called [cross-sectioning](https://plus.pearson.com/courses/urn:xl-hed:course:7987374/products/72N23LI7V1Q/pages/Z08_COLB6818_04_SE_GLOS.xhtml#gloss_243) the body. Cross-sectioning is often done with tissue and organ samples so that internal structures can be examined.** - The [**median plane**](https://plus.pearson.com/courses/urn:xl-hed:course:7987374/products/72N23LI7V1Q/pages/Z08_COLB6818_04_SE_GLOS.xhtml#gloss_600), also called the [**midsagittal plane**](https://plus.pearson.com/courses/urn:xl-hed:course:7987374/products/72N23LI7V1Q/pages/Z08_COLB6818_04_SE_GLOS.xhtml#gloss_635), divides the body into right and left halves. - The [**frontal plane**](https://plus.pearson.com/courses/urn:xl-hed:course:7987374/products/72N23LI7V1Q/pages/Z08_COLB6818_04_SE_GLOS.xhtml#gloss_402), or [**coronal plane**](https://plus.pearson.com/courses/urn:xl-hed:course:7987374/products/72N23LI7V1Q/pages/Z08_COLB6818_04_SE_GLOS.xhtml#gloss_229), divides the body into anterior (ventral) and posterior (dorsal) sections. **Sagittal sections of an organ run parallel to which plane? The median plane** **Body Cavities:** - **[Dorsal (Posterior) Cavity]** -- Located in the back of the body and consists of the **cranial cavity** (brain) and the **spinal/vertebral cavity** which contains the spinal cord. - **[Ventral (Anterior) Cavity] --** subdivided into two main cavities called **thoracic cavity** and **abdominopelvic cavity**. These cavities are separated by a large dome-shaped muscle called the diaphragm. - **[Thoracic cavity:]** Houses the heart, lungs, and large blood vessels. - **[Pericardial cavity:]** The heart has its own small cavity. - **[Abdominopelvic cavity]:** Houses the digestive organs (stomach, intestines, liver, gallbladder, pancreas, and spleen superiorly). Inferiorly (**pelvic cavity)** contains the urinary and reproductive organs and the last part of the small intestine. - **[Nasal cavity] --** The space behind the nose - **[Oral cavity (buccal cavity)] --** the space within the mouth. - **[Orbital cavity] --** Houses the eyes. **Applied Science -- Xrays, CT scans, and MRIs** - X-rays are a form of high-energy radiation that penetrates the body and gives a two-dimensional view of the bones, air, fluid, and tissues in the body - Computed tomography (CT) scanning uses a narrowly focused x-ray beam that circles rapidly around the body. The computer constructs thin-slice images and combines them to give much greater detail and allow for a more three-dimensional view, much like a loaf of sliced bread gives a better idea of the total shape of the loaf than does a single slice. - Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) produces even greater detail of tissue structures, even down to individual nerve bundles. MRI uses the body's natural magnetic properties to produce clear images of any body part. Since it relies on a powerful magnetic field, another advantage of MRI is no radiation exposure. Clinical Application The central landmark: The spinal column. The spinal or vertebral column is a major, centrally located anatomical landmark and has five sets of vertebrae (spinal bones) named for their location in the body. The **seven cervical (C) vertebrae** are located in the neck; the **12 thoracic (T) vertebrae** are located in the chest; the **five lumbar (L) vertebrae** are located in the lower back; and the **five fused sacral (S) vertebrae (sacrum)** are connected to the pelvis and are located near the final coccygeal vertebra (coccyx or tail-bone). **Body Regions** **-The abdominal region can be divided into 9 sections/regions.:** **- [epigastric region](https://plus.pearson.com/courses/urn:xl-hed:course:7987374/products/72N23LI7V1Q/pages/Z08_COLB6818_04_SE_GLOS.xhtml#gloss_340) (*epi*, "above"; *gastric*, "stomach") is located superior to the umbilical region.** **A more practical way for health professionals to compartmentalize the abdominal region is to separate it into anatomical quadrants.** **Abdomen** **Right upper quadrant -- liver, right kidney, colon, pancreas, gallbladder.** **Left upper quadrant -- Liver, Spleen, L kidney, Stomach, Colon, pancreas** **[Other body regions and locations:]** **Antebrachial -- forearm, between the wrists and elbow.** **Antecubital -- depressed area in the front of the elbow (used to draw blood from).** **Axillary -- armpit** **Brachial -- upper arm (blood pressure is taken here).** **Buccal -- cheek.** **Carpal -- wrist** **Cervical -- Neck** **Digital -- Fingers** **Gluteal -- Buttocks** **Lumbar -- Lower back** **Nasal -- Nose** **Oral -- Mouth** **Orbital -- Eye area** **Patellar -- Knee** **Plantar -- Sole of the foot** **Pubic -- genital region** **Sternal -- breastbone** **Thoracic -- chest.** - **Psoas test - The patient is placed in a supine position and instructed to raise the right leg while the practitioner places a hand on the patient's right thigh and gives a slight opposing downward force. If the patient has appendicitis, the patient will usually experience pain in the right lower quadrant.** Use to Guide Reading: Anatomy & Physiology for Health Professions: An Interactive Journey Chapter 3 -- Biochemistry -- The Raw Building Materials and Building Blocks =========================================================================== Chemistry is the study of atoms and molecules and their interactions. Physiology is largely about the interactions between molecules in our cells and tissues or, more specifically, how chemistry relates to a living organism. Structures Needed to create an organism: Smallest to largest: -Atoms (Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen). -Molecules (Sugars, Proteins, Water) -Organelles (Mitochondrion, Nucleus, Ribosome) -Cells (Epithelial cell, Nerve cell, Muscle cell) -Tissues (Epithelial, Nervous, Muscle, Connective Tissue) -Organs (Lung, Brain, Stomach, Kidney) -Organ Systems (Respiratory, Nervous, Digestive, Circulatory) **Atoms, Elements, and Ions:** [Elements:] In chemistry, an element is a pure substance made up of one type of atom that cannot be broken down into smaller parts or changed into another substance. Elements are the basic parts of matter and everything in the universe contains at least one element. [Atoms:] Are the smallest, recognizable unit of an element. Atoms consist of: - Nucleus - Protons: Positive charged particles. - Neutrons: Neutrally charged particles - Surrounded by electrons: Negatively charged particles. An atom is considered neutral when it has an equal number of electrons and protons (the number of positive protons equals the number of negative electrons). When an atom has an equal number of protons and electrons, the negative and positive charges cancel each other out, resulting in a neutral atom. [Ions:] When an atom loses or gains electrons, it becomes an ion. - Atoms that have LOST an electron will have an extra positively charged proton, so will be positive. - Atoms THAT have gained an electron will have an extra negatively charged electron, so will be negative. [Molecule]: Two or more elements joined together form a molecule. The individual elements in molecules are held together by **bonds** between electrons in the atoms. **Acids, Bases, and pH:** **Important to know: electrolytes are chemical elements that carry a positive or negative charge and conduct electricity when dissolved in a solution. Electrolytes are carried in the plasma. Excess amounts in the blood are removed by the kidneys. Examples include Na+, K+, Cl-, Ca++ and HCO3- (bicarbonate)** - **[Acids and bases] are electrolytes and therefore can conduct electricity and break down in water because they produce ions that act as charge carriers.** - **An acid is any hydrogen-containing substance that is capable of donating a proton (hydrogen ion) to another substance. A base is a molecule or ion able to accept a hydrogen ion from an acid.** - **[Acids: Release hydrogen ions when dissolved in water]** - **Acids can dissolve metals and literally burn a hole through material.** - **Acids taste sour.** - **Acids dissolved in water release hydrogen ions that can easily react with other atoms.** - **[Bases: Accept hydrogen ions].** - **Bases: Taste bitter.** - **Hydroxides (OH-) are common bases and accept spare hydrogen ions.** - **The concentration or amount of hydrogen and hydroxides per unit volume are measured using the [pH (potential of hydrogen)] scale.** - **The pH scale ranges from 0-14.** - **A value between 0 and 6.9 means there are more hydrogen ions (H+) compared to hydroxide or hydroxyl ions (OH-) and is therefore more acidic.** - Neutral pH, in which there are the same number of hydrogen and hydroxyl ions, is 7. - A pH greater than 7 indicates there are hydroxyl ions, and is said to be basic or alkaline. - **Blood 7.35 to 7.45 (more hydroxyl ions, base)** - **Household bleach 9.5 (more hydroxyl ions, base)** - **Stomach acid 0.8 (more hydrogen ions, acid)** - **Grapefruit Juice has a pH of 3 (more hydrogen ions, acid)** The systems that help regulate the acid--base balance include the respiratory and renal systems. The role of the respiratory system (discussed in more detail in [[Chapter] ](https://plus.pearson.com/courses/urn:xl-hed:course:7987374/products/72N23LI7V1Q/pages/M14_COLB6818_04_SE_C14_1.xhtml#ch14)) is to take in oxygen (O~2~) and get rid of carbon dioxide (CO~2~). **Carbon dioxide is a weak acid**. If we do not move adequate amounts of air or even stop breathing, there is a buildup of CO~2~ in the body, and this buildup of acid is detected in the brain, which gives a person an overwhelming desire to breathe. This is the simplest way of getting rid of excess acid, but if there is a problem with the respiratory system, the kidneys come to the rescue and enable the elimination of excess acid in the urine. **Water (H20)** - **The cells in the body are composed of 60% to 80% water.** - **Water serves several purposes, including acting as a medium or solvent for other reactions to occur, helping transport materials, absorbing and releasing heat (sweat) from the body to maintain core temperature, and functioning as a body lubricant.** Water (H~2~O) is the chief liquid in biological systems. All the fluid in your body is water based. Water is a **[polar solvent]** because the bonds between the H and O in water are not equally shared. - Oxygen holds onto the electrons longer than hydrogen, so it is slightly negative on the O side and slightly positive on the H side. Thus, charged molecules will be attracted to one end or the other of a water molecule. **Hydrophilic**: Water loving, or a substance that readily mixes with water. - The charge across water means it attracts other charged molecules. These molecules are also called hydrophilic molecules. - Charged molecules containing elements such as oxygen, phosphorus, and nitrogen mix easily with water and are considered hydrophilic molecules. **Hydrophobic**: Water fearing, or a substance that does not readily mix with water. - Other molecules that do not carry a charge, such as fats and oils, do not mix well with water and are considered hydrophobic. Additionally, the polarity of water causes the development of hydrogen bonds between water molecules. The hydrogen on water molecule binds weakly to the oxygen on the another water molecule. - **Hydrogen Bonds**: Weak bond between polar molecules due to attraction between hydrogen and a negatively charged atom. This bond between the water molecules increases water's heat capacity. Water can actually store heat, meaning water heats up and cools down more slowly than air. The hydrogen bonding also means that in its sold state, water is less tightly packed than in its liquid state (hence the reason ice floats). - It is interesting to note that hydrogen (H~2~), a highly flammable gas, and oxygen (O~2~), a gas that supports combustion, can combine to form H~2~O (water) that can be used to extinguish fires. [**Dehydration**](https://plus.pearson.com/courses/urn:xl-hed:course:7987374/products/72N23LI7V1Q/pages/Z08_COLB6818_04_SE_GLOS.xhtml#gloss_264) is defined as fluid loss of greater than 1% of body weight. Water is first lost from the blood and then from the body cells. A 10%--12% loss of body weight due to dehydration can be fatal. **Solutions** **Solution: When one substance is dissolved in another, the combination is called a solution.** **Solute: The substance dissolved.** **Solvent: The substance doing the dissolving, usually water in living things.** **Solute Concentration: The amount of solute dissolved in a solvent is called the solute concentration.** **Dilutants: Substance used to thin a fluid or dilute a solution. Also known as fillers or thinners** **Electrolytes: Those important ions necessary for fluid balance, are the solutes dissolved in your water-based body fluids.** **Biological Molecules:** **-Most of our anatomy is made of molecules called biological molecules.** **-Biological molecules are molecules found in living systems that contain mainly the elements carbon (C) and hydrogen (H), with lesser amounts of oxygen (O), nitrogen (N), sulfur (S), phosphorus (P) and other elements.** **-These molecules fall into four broad categories** **1. Carbohydrates** **2. Lipids** **3. Proteins** **4. Nucleic acids** **Carbohydrates (watered carbon): Sugars and starches** - **They are used as energy sources and as structural molecules.** - Carbohydrate molecules all have carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in the ratio of 1 carbon to 2 hydrogens to 1 oxygen (CH~2~O). **Monosaccharides: A simple sugar such as glucose** - **Monosaccharides have 5 or 6 carbons.** - **Glucose (C6H12O6) your body's chief fuel, is a monosaccharide.** **Disaccharide: A carbohydrate that is composed of two monosaccharides** **If two monosaccharides are linked together, a disaccharide is formed.** - **Sucrose, or table sugar, consists of a glucose molecule and a fructose molecule linked together.** **Polysaccharides: Made when many monosaccharides are linked together.** **Glycogen:** a molecule in your liver that is used to store energy, consists of many, many glucose molecules in a long chain and therefore can be broken down to release more glucose into the blood when needed. **Lipids: Fats** - **Lipids consist of mainly carbon and hydrogen. Because they have very little oxygen or ions in them, lipids are usually hydrophobic.** - **Lipids are used for energy storage, communication, and protection.** - **There are many types of lipids (triglycerides (fat), phospholipid molecules (phosphatidyl choline), and cholesterol (steroid)).** **Fats and oils consist of three fatty-acid chains and a glycerol (also known as glycerol) molecule. They are energy storage molecules and can be broken down when needed by the body.** a molecule in your liver that is used to store energy, consists of many, many glucose molecules in a long chain and therefore can be broken down to release more glucose into the blood when needed. Examples of saturated fats (bad fats) (fats that share electrons -- covalent bond): fatty beef, butter, and cheese. Examples of unsaturated fats (good fats) (fats that share more than one electron -- double covalent bond): salmon, tree nuts, and vegetable oils. Waxes: Waxes are lipids that consist of a fatty-acid chain with an alcohol molecule. They are some of the most hydrophobic substances known and are used mainly for protection, particularly waterproofing. (Why do you wax your car?) Phospholipids: The primary substance in the lipid portion of a cell membrane. These molecules have a phosphate (PO4-) hydrophilic head and two fatty acid hydrophobic tails. - Phospholipids are key molecules in the structure and function of cell membranes. Steroids: Have carbon atoms arranged in rings and many hormones are made of modified steroids. - Cholesterol, estrogen, and testosterone. - Anabolic steroids are also considered lipids **Proteins: A class of compounds that are synthesized by all living organisms with many different functions. They are made of long chains of amino acids.** - **Because amino acids have nitrogen in them, proteins are always recognizable by the nitrogen atoms in the backbone of the molecule.** - **A special linkage called a peptide bond ties the amnio acids together and is unique to protein molecules.** - **Proteins are the most versatile of all biological molecules, acting as structural molecules (collagen in tendons and ligaments), speeding up biological reactions (enzymes), storing energy (egg white albumin), moving your body (muscle protein), protecting against infection (antibodies), and allowing cells to communication (the hormone insulin), to name just a few functions of proteins.** - **The structure of a protein is determined by the order of amino acids in the molecule.** **Denaturation: The process by which proteins lose their structure by application of an external stress or compound such as a strong acid or base, radiation, organic solvent, or heat.** **Nucleic acids: Chemicals such as DNA or RNA that carry genetic information.** - **Nucleic acids are involved in controlling the activities of cells and are molecules that contain your genetic code.** **Metabolism: Process of using oxygen and glucose to produce energy for cells. Metabolism also produces byproducts like carbon dioxide and other waste products. This is the ongoing cycle of anabolism and catabolism** - **Anabolism: Assembly of new molecules within the body. This is the building phase of metabolism** - **Many anabolic reactions are dehydration synthesis reactions in which water is removed and biological molecules are hitched together.** - **Catabolism: Breaking-down of molecules in the body. This is the tearing down phase of metabolism.** - **Catabolic process:** the breakdown of food into simpler chemical building blocks for energy use. - **Starvation is an extreme form of catabolism as the body feeds on itself, consuming the body's own tissues.** - Hydrolysis reactions: A reaction in which a large molecule is split into small nodules by the addition of water. Many catabolic reactions are hydrolysis reactions. **Enzymes: Making reactions happen.** **-Organelles: Small structures in the cytoplasm that have various specialized functions. Organelles include mitochondria, ribosomes, the endoplasmic reticulum, the Golgi apparatus, and lysosomes.** **-Enzymes: Protein molecules that speed up the rate of chemical reactions in cells. Enzymes are particularly important in the breakdown and synthesis of biological molecules.** **- Only certain molecules can be carried by certain enzymes.** **-Substrate: An underlying layer or foundation. Also the term for molecules that are reactants in an enzyme-catalyzed reaction.** - **During cellular respiration, glucose is combined with oxygen and is transformed in your mitochondria into high-energy molecules call ATP (adenosine triphosphate).** - **ATP is made from a base, a sugar, and three phosphate groups which are held together by high-energy bonds** - **When these high-energy bonds are broken, a large amount of energy is made.** - **When a bond is used ATP becomes ADP (adenosine diphosphate) which only has two phosphate groups. ADP is now able to pick up another phosphate and form a high-energy bond so energy is stored and the process can begin again.** Chapter 4: ========== Overview of Cells: ------------------ **Cells:** Are the fundamental unit of living things. Body cells are microscopic, ranging from about one-third to one-thirteenth the size of the dot on this exclamation point! Although cells have common components, they come in a variety of shapes and sizes to match their function. Some types of body cells include nerve cells, blood cells, and muscle cells. There are certain common traits that all cells share: - Nucleus (except for mature red blood cells) - *Cell membrane* - *Organelles* - *Cytoplasm* 1. Cell Membrane (also called the plasma membrane): a. Composed of lipids and proteins with some carbohydrates (also known as biological molecules) b. The bulk of the membrane is composed of a double layer of phospholipids, oriented tail to tail. This bilayer prevents hydrophilic molecules from passing through the membrane. c. Cell membranes also contain abundant amounts of cholesterol. d. Proteins also contribute to the selective permeability of the cell membrane. Proteins may act as channels so substances can pass across the membrane or they can carry substances across the membrane. e. Proteins can also be identification markers, **histocompatibility markers,** showing that the cell comes from a certain person. - A **[semipermeable barrier]** that surrounds a cell and holds in cytoplasm. It allows water and some nutrients to enter and waste products to leave the cell. - Because the membrane selects what may pass through, it is known as a **[selectively permeable (or semipermeable membrane)]** Transport Methods: ------------------ Movement across a membrane can happen in two broad ways: - Passive transport: The general term for the transportation of cellular material without the use of energy. - Passive transport requires no extra form of energy because the substance is being transported DOWN its concentration gradient (like riding a bike down a hill). - Active transport: The movement of cellular material that requires energy. - Active transport requires addition of energy through the transport process to make it happen because substances are being transported UP their gradient (riding a bike up a steep hill) \*\* concentration gradient: If a substance moves from a higher concentration to a lower concentration gradient (difference), it is said to be moving with (down) the concentration gradient. Moving from a low concentration to a high concentration, on the other hand, is said to be going against (up) the gradient. ### Passive transport: Can be divided into four types: 1. Diffusion -- The process of movement of a substance from high concentration to low concentration. 2. Osmosis -- The passage of the solvent through a semipermeable membrane to equalize concentrations. 3. Filtration -- The process in which water and substances in the blood are pushed through the pores of the glomerulus. The resulting fluid is known as filtrate. 4. Facilitated Diffusion -- is a variation of diffusion in which a protein channel helps a substance move across the membrane. 1. [Diffusion: ] - The most common means of passive transport by which a solute travels from an area of higher concentration to an area of lesser concentration, with the gradient (think adding a packet of powdered drink mix to a pitcher of water or the smell of a classmates perfume filling a room). - Necessary in the transportation of oxygen from the lungs and into the blood. It is also needed to transport the waste (carbon dioxide) from the blood to the lungs and eventually out into the air. 2. [Osmosis: ] - Is another form of passive transport in which water travels through a selectively permeable membrane when a concentration gradient is present. Water tends to travel across a membrane from areas that have a low concentration of a solute to areas that have a high concentration of the solute until the concentration is equal on both sides of the membrane. - The ability of a substance to pull water toward an area of higher concentration of the solute is called **[Osmotic pressure]** (The pressure that develops when two solutions of varying concentrations are separated by a semipermeable membrane). - Balance is achieved through semipermeable membranes by the concept of tonicity where the impermeable solutes are allowed to travel through a special passageway in the cell membrane called an **aquaporin**. - [Hypertonic solution:] Has greater impermeable solute concentration in the solution surrounding the cell than inside the cell. - [Hypotonic solution:] Has less impermeable solutes than what is inside the cell. - [Isotonic solution:] Has equal amounts of impermeable solutes inside the cell and in the surrounding solution. - Tonicity is the concentration of the solute whereas osmosis is the concentration of water. - Extracellular fluid is the concentration solution outside of the cell. - Crenation is when a cell shrinks following exposure to a hypertonic solution. - If a hypertonic solution exists outside the cell, water will rush out of the cell through the aquaporins to balance the tonicity, which---in this case---will cause the cell to shrink due to water loss. This is called [**[crenation]**](https://plus.pearson.com/courses/urn:xl-hed:course:7987374/products/72N23LI7V1Q/pages/Z08_COLB6818_04_SE_GLOS.xhtml#gloss_242). Again, referring to the figure, a hypotonic extra-cellular solution will cause the cell to pull more water in to create equilibrium; this can lead to the cell bursting. 3. [Filtration:] - In filtration, pressure is applied to force water its dissolved materials across a membrane (similar to when you squeeze a trigger on a squirt gun or when there is a rush of people being forced through a turnstile during rush hour) - The major supplier of force in the body is the pumping of the heart, which forces blood flow into the kidneys where filtration takes place. - Filtration is a selective process in that only solutes that can fit through channels and other openings in the membrane will filter across it. 4. [Facilitated Diffusion (Carrier-Mediated Passive Transport):] - Glucose is the substance that is often transported this way (imagine a revolving door. Each person entering the door is a molecule entering the protein channel). - As long as glucose is moving DOWN its concentration gradient, the transport is considered passive transport. - The carrier is needed because the substance cannot make it across the membrane on its own. - Because the protein channel is used to transport the substance, this kind of transport is a binding system and has some of the same characteristics as enzymes. - Facilitated diffusion is also highly specific. - Protein channels may also be subject to saturation (too many substances and/or not enough) and inhibition (channels are blocked from working) ### Active transport: 1. **Active transport pumps** -- The movement of cellular material that requires energy. 2. **Endocytosis** -- The ingestion of substances by a cell. Substances are taken into the cells after being surrounded by vesilces. 3. **Exocytosis** -- Secretion. The expulsion of material form a cell using vesicles. 1. [Active transport pumps (carrier-mediated active transport):] - Works the same way as facilitated diffusion except that active transport pumps require the addition of energy in the form of an energy molecule called adenosine triphosphate, or ATP to move a substance. - Energy is needed because the cell is trying to move a substance into an area that already has a high concentration of that substance (against the concentration gradient). - A common example in our cells is the need to transport potassium (K+). Cells contain a good amount of potassium. The only way to get more into a cell is to apply energy to push it in, using a carrier molecule and expending energy. 2. E[ndocytosis (endo/cyt/osis -- within/cell/condition):] - Endocytosis is utilized by the cells for the INTAKE of liquid and solid particles when the substance is too large to diffuse across the cell membrane. - When endocytosis occurs, the cell membrane actually surrounds the substance with a small portion of its membrane, forming a vesicle (small bladder or blister; a membrane-bound storage sac inside a cell), which then separates from the membrane and moves into the cell. - There are two types of endocytosis: - [Phagocytosis (phago = swallow or eat):] The process by which a phagocyte destroys a foreign cell or cellular debris; a type of endocytosis. - [Phinocytosis (pino = to drink)**:** ]The process in which a cell absorbs fluid material; a type of endocytosis. 3. Exocytosis (exo = outside): - In some situations, the cell needs to transport substances out of itself using a vesicle. - Some cells may produce a substance needed outside the cell itself. Once this substance is made, it is surrounded by a membrane forming a vesicle and moved to the cell membrane. This vesicle becomes part of the cell membrane and expels its load out of the cell. - There are two basic types of exocytosis: - Continuous: Continuous exocytosis is present in all cells (simply walking through a door). - Regulated: Regulated exocytosis is specific to secretory cells. For regulated exocytosis, the cell must first receive a signal (like needing a badge to leave or enter a building/room) Cytoplasm, Nucleus and Nucleolus, Ribosomes, Centrosomes, and Mitrochondria: ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- ![](media/image1.png) ### Cytoplasm: - Gell-like intracellular substance. Organelles are embedded in it. - The internal parts of a cell (organelles) require a special environment, called cytoplasm, to survive. - Cytoplasm is a watery solution of organic (proteins, carbohydrates, and lipids) and inorganic chemicals such as minerals and gases. ### Nucleus and Nucleolus: #### Nucleus - Described as the brain of the cell. It dictates the activities of the organelles in the cell. - The nucleus is surrounded by a double-walled nuclear membrane. Even though this membrane is composed of two layers, it has large pores that allow certain materials to pass into and out of the nucleus. *Chromatin* -- Genetic material found in the nucleus of a cell. - Chromatin is the material found in the nucleus that contains deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) - DNA is sequenced pairs of nucleotides that form a double helix. A segment of DNA makes up a gene). - The specifications (blueprints) for the creation of new cells are contained in DNA. - Chromatin eventually forms chromosomes, which contain genes. - A gene is an area on a chromosome that contains all the DNA information needed to produce one type of protein molecule and is responsible for determining our inherited characteristics. *Nucleolus*: A round, central region within the nucleus. It makes ribosomes. - The nucleolus is found within the cell nucleus. - It's major function is to synthesize the RNA (ribonucleic acid) that forms ribosomes. - ### Ribosomes: - Granular organelle located throughout the cytoplasm and on the endoplasmic reticulum. Ribosomes are made of RNA and assist in the production of enzymes and other proteins that are needed for cell repair and reproduction. - They can be considered the building material suppliers for remodeling and repair. Centrosomes: Region of cytoplasm usually near the nucleus that contains one to two centrioles - Centrosomes are specialized regions within the cell responsible for building new structures. - They contain centrioles that are involved in the division of the cell. - Centrioles are tubular shaped and usually found in pairs. Mitochondria: The organelle of the cell that makes ATP, cellular energy. \- ATP are made in the mitochondria. \- Special enzymes in the mitochondria help to take in oxygen and use it to produce energy. - Cellular respiration (the process by which oxygen is used to break down nutrients needed for cellular activity) is used to make ATP. - During the process of digestion, energy is released from food. Cells cannot use this energy directly. Only food converted to glucose (simple sugar) can be used to make energy. - Glucose can be used by your cells during a series of chemical reactions called cellular respiration. - During cellular respiration, glucose is combined with oxygen and is transformed in the mitochondria into ATP. - During cellular respiration, glucose is burned in the presence of oxygen, making water, carbon dioxide, and lots of energy. - Once the glucose is used up and energy is made, carbon dioxide and water are made as byproducts. - If a given cell type is very active and needs more power, there are larger number of mitochondria in that cell. Liver cells, for example, can have up to 2000 mitochondria in each cell. Sperm cells swim with a tail (flagellum), so they need only a single mitochondrion coiled around the tail for energy. Endoplasmic reticulum: Organelle that consists of a network of channels that transport materials within the cell. Also, the site of protein fat, and glycogen synthesis. - A series of channels set up in the cytoplasm that are formed from folded membranes. - Has two distinct forms: - One surface covered in ribosomes -- which is termed the rough endoplasmic reticulum. - Responsible for synthesis of protein. - Once protein is synthesized, it is sent to the Golgi apparatus for processes. - The other surface has no ribosomes -- which is termed the smooth endoplasmic reticulum. - Responsible for synthesis of lipids and steroids. Golgi apparatus: Organelle of the cell that packages cellular materials for transport - The Golgi apparatus looks like a bunch of flattened, membranous sacs. - Once the Golgi apparatus receives protein from the endoplasmic reticulum, it further processes and stores it as a shippable product. - Not only does it prepare the protein for shipping, it also ships the protein through exocytosis -- a part of the Golgi apparatus surrounds the protein with a vesicle that then separates itself from the main body of this organelle. This new portion (the vesicle containing the protein) then travels to the cell membrane where it releases (Secretes) the protein. - Cells in organs with a high level of secretion or storage -- like the digestive system, salivary glands, and pancreatic glands -- contain higher numbers of the Golgi apparatus. Lysosomes (lysis = to break down): Organelle that consists of a small sac with digestive enzymes in it. These destroy pathogens that invade the cell. - Lysosomes are vesicles containing hydrolytic enzymes that take care of cleaning up intracellular debris and other waste. - Hydrolytic enzymes speed up the hydrolysis reactions. - Lysosomes also aid in maintaining health by destroying unwanted bacteria through the process of phagocytosis. ### Other Interesting Parts - **Cytoskeleton:** Protein rods that make up the structure of cell parts including cilia, flagella, and myofilaments - The cytoskeleton is a network of microtubules and interconnected filaments that provide shape to the cell and allow the cell and its contents to be mobile. - **Flagella:** Hairlike processes on bacteria or protozoa that cause movement - Whip-shaped tails that move some cells in a fashion similar to that of a tadpole. - **Cilia:** Small hairs that flow in waves to move foreign particles away from the lungs toward the nose and throat, where they can be expelled. Also found inside the fallopian tubes to propel an ovum toward the uterus. - Short, microscopic, hairlike projections located on the outer surface of some cells. - They move in a wavelike motion that carries particles in a given direction. - Ciliary action is one way our lungs stay clean from the dust particles and germs that we inhale every day. Cellular mitosis: ----------------- Cellular reproduction (cell division): The process of making a new cell. - In cell division/cellular reproduction, one cell divides into two cells when it reproduces. - Cells can only come from other cells. Asexual reproduction: Reproduction in which sex cells are not utilized. - When cells make IDENTICAL copies of themselves WITHOUT THE INVOLVEMENT of another cell. - Most cells reproduce themselves asexually whether they are animal cells, plant cells, or bacteria. Eukaryotic cells[:] A cell type that makes up the human body. Includes a nucleus (usually with several chromosomes) and cellular organelles. - Reminder: the genetic material of the cell (contained within the nucleus), DNA, is bundled into packages of chromatin known as chromosomes. - Because chromosomes carry all the instructions for the cells, all cells must have a complete set after reproduction. - These instructions include how the cell is to function within the body and blueprints for reproduction. Mitosis: The process of cells sorting the chromosomes so that each new cell gets all the correct number of copies of genetic material. - Mitosis is the only way the eukaryotic cells (one nucleus, several chromosomes and cellular organelles) can reproduce asexually. - In the process of mitosis human cells need to duplicate all 46 chromosomes and they have to make sure that each cell gets all the chromosomes and all the right organelles. Prokaryotic: Pertaining to a cell that has no nucleus or many organelles. Bacteria are prokaryotic cells. - Bacteria reproduce through a process known as BINARY FISSION. - Bacterial cells simply copy their DNA, divide up the cytoplasm and split in half. Cellular Mitosis and the Cell Cycle: ------------------------------------ - **Apoptosis: The death of cells which occurs as a normal and controlled part of an organisms growth or development** - **Cell cycle:** The total life of an eukaryotic cell consisting of two phases: interphase and mitotic. - **Interphase:** The part of the cell cycle in which the cell is performing normal functions and is stockpiling needed materials and preparing for cell division. - Normal functions, stockpiling needed materials, and preparing for division by copying DNA and making new organelles. - **Mitotic:** The phase devoted to actual cell division. Can be divided into two major portions. - Sorting of the genetic material. - Cytokinesis: The separation of the cells cytoplasm into parts following division of the cell's nucleus. - **Mitosis,** the division of the genetic material, is the most complicated part of cell division for a eukaryotic cell and can be divided into four specific phases. - **Prophase** - **Metaphase** - **Anaphase** - **Telophase.** ### The Phases of Mitosis [**[Prophase]**](https://plus.pearson.com/courses/urn:xl-hed:course:7987374/products/72N23LI7V1Q/pages/Z08_COLB6818_04_SE_GLOS.xhtml#gloss_848) (*pro* = before): The nucleus disappears, the chromosomes become visible, and a set of chromosomal anchor lines or guide wires, called *spindle fibers*, forms. [**[Metaphase]**](https://plus.pearson.com/courses/urn:xl-hed:course:7987374/products/72N23LI7V1Q/pages/Z08_COLB6818_04_SE_GLOS.xhtml#gloss_627) (*meta* = between): The chromosomes line up in the center of the cell. [**[Anaphase]**](https://plus.pearson.com/courses/urn:xl-hed:course:7987374/products/72N23LI7V1Q/pages/Z08_COLB6818_04_SE_GLOS.xhtml#gloss_39) (*an* = without): The chromosomes split, and the spindle fibers pull them apart. [**[Telophase]**](https://plus.pearson.com/courses/urn:xl-hed:course:7987374/products/72N23LI7V1Q/pages/Z08_COLB6818_04_SE_GLOS.xhtml#gloss_1038) (*telo* = the end): The chromosomes go to the far end of the cell, the spindle fibers begin to disappear, and the nuclei reappear. During or directly after telophase, cytokinesis happens, and the cell divides in half. The original cell (the mother cell) divides into two new identical cells (daughter cells) ### Mitosis in Your Body **Mitosis:** Asexual cellular reproduction - Anytime your cells need to be replaced, mitosis is the method used to replace them. - Repair and regeneration of damaged tissue is also accomplished by mitosis. - Mitosis increases the number of cells near the injury so that the damaged or destroyed cells can be replaced. - Growth is also accomplished by mitosis **Meiosis:** The division of cells in order for reproduction to occur. Known as reduction division because the cells lose half their chromosomes. Makes gametes. - Sexual reproduction is different from mitosis because sperm and egg must have only half the number of chromosomes as other cells. Mitosis Run Amok: - Benign: Nonmalignant - Typically grow slowly and push healthy cells out of the way. - Malignant: Cancerous, able to spread to distant parts of the body. - Typically grow rapidly and invade, rather than push aside, healthy cell tissue. - Cancer actually means "crab" and is a good description of cancer cells in that they spread out into healthy tissues like the legs and pincers of a crab - Cancerous tumors also differ from benign tumors in that that parts of the tumor can break off and travel through the blood system or the lymphatic network and start new tumors in other parts of the body. This is called metastasis. Microorganisms: --------------- - Bacteria - Viruses - Fungi - Protozoa - Prions 1. Bacteria (path/o/gen disease/producing) -- asexually reproducing prokaryotic cells capable of creating infection. a. Bacteria are the largest group of pathogens. b. Bacteria grow rapidly and reproduce by splitting in half, sometimes doubling as rapidly as every 30 minutes. c. Bacteria are often harmless and are essential for life. d. Bacteria that live within us or on us are known as normal flora i. Normal flora: organisms within or on our bodies that either normally harmless or are essential. e. Some bacteria can sense and respond to a magnetic field. They are sensitive to Earth's magnetic field and orient themselves to this force. This is called **magnetotaxis.** These bacteria contain particles of iron oxide stored in a cell structure called the magnetosome. 2. Virus (Latin term meaning poison) -- a microorganism that depends on other cells for its metabolic and reproductive needs. f. Viruses are simple pathogens. g. Viruses are infectious particles that have a core containing genetic material surrounded by a protective protein coat called a capsid. ii. Capsid: The protein covering around a virus particle. h. Some viruses contain an additional layer, or membrane, surrounding the capsid. i. Viruses cannot grow, eat, or reproduce by themselves. They must enter another cell (host cell) and hijack that cell's parts, energy supply, and materials to do all the aforementioned activities. j. Each virus must target specific cells in the body to claim as hosts. iii. For example, viruses that cause a cold must target the cells found in the respiratory system. Polio targets the cells found in tissues of the nervous system. k. Some viruses can stay dormant in the body and become active once again later in life. This is called latency. iv. Refers to the period of time in which a virus remains dormant in the body. l. When the virus is reactivated and begins to replicate again, the process is referred to as the lytic phase. Think chickenpox/shingles (VZV) 3. Fungi (fungus): A plant-like organism that includes molds and yeasts. m. Can be either one-celled or multicelled organisms. n. These plant-like organisms have tiny filamets, called mycelia that travel out from the cell to find and absorb nutrients. v. Mycelia: A mass of fibers from fungi/mold. o. Fungi can also spread through the release of spores. p. Wind can pick up and carry spores that can be inhaled and potentially cause lung infections. q. Examples of fungal infections include tinea (athletes foot), Candida albicans (thrush or candidiasis. 4. Protozoa[:] Unicellular organisms. r. Found in water such as ponds and in soil. s. Disease results from swallowing them (such as by drinking contaminated water) or from being bitten by insects that carry them (such as malaria-carrying mosquitos). 5. Prions: Infectious proteins -- not true organisms -- abnormal pathogenic agents. t. Able to cause an abnormal folding of specific normal cellular proteins. Tissue affected by the prions is full of microscopic holes, causing tissue to exhibit a spongy architecture. u. Since a vast amount of these proteins are found in the brain, prions have been recognized as a causative agent in certain brain disease that exhibit neuronal loss and brain inflammation. v. They are rapidly progressive and always fatal. w. Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (CJD is one example) as is chronic wasting disease (CWD) and scrappie in animals. Clinical application: Antibiotic (against all life) -- used to treat bacterial infections. Anti-infectives: Can include antibiotics, antiviral agents, antifungal agents, and antiprotozoal agents. Chapter 5 -- Tissues and Systems ================================ To give a health-related analogy, we can consider cells to be individual health facility employees. At the next level, we can think of tissue as a group of those employees who have the same or similar educational background and perform similar functions, such as radiologic technicians at a hospital. [A combination of tissues designed to perform a specific function, or several functions, is called an organ.] **Organ:** A part of the body, composed of tissues, that has one or more specialized functions. **Systems**: An organized grouping of organs that perform specific functions. We can compare a system to a hospital that provides a service, such as healthcare) to the citizens of our city throughout a combination of departments: laboratory, nursing, etc. Overview of Tissues: -------------------- ### Tissue Types: **Tissue:** A collection of similar cells that perform a particular function. - Imagine individual cells as bricks. Placing these bricks (cells) in a specific pattern creates the functional wall (tissue) of a building. - There are many different types of tissues, depending on the required function. - There are four main types of tissues: - Epithelial - Connective - Muscle - Nervous ### Epithelial Tissue: Epithelial tissue (or epithelium) - Covers and lines much of the body and covers many of the parts found in the body. - The outer part of your skin is called the epidermis (epi = outer) and is epithelial tissue. - The linings of your hollow organs such as the heart, lungs, and blood vessels are lined with epithelial cells. These are called endothelium (endo = inside) because they line the inside of the organs or vessels. - Cells of epithelial tissue are packed tightly together, forming a sheet that usually contains no blood vessels except for the GI tract where capillaries do exist. We can classify epithelial cells by their shape and arrangement: - **Squamous** **(squam/ous = scale/abounding in):** A flat, scaly epithelial cells. - **Cuboidal:** A cube-shaped structure. - **Columnar:** A column-shaped structure. - **Transitional:** Stretchy and variably-shaped; moving from one state to the another. A type of stratified epithelium with atypical cells. - **Simple:** Arranged in a single layer and are all the same type of cell. - **Stratified:** Have more than one layer; named by the type of cell on the outer layer (such as stratified columnar). - **Pseudostratified (pseudo = false):** A type of epithelial tissue that looks stratified but is only a single layer of cells. The cells are different sizes, which makes the tissue look stratified under a microscope. The function required of the tissue dictates which type of cell formation is used. - Simple squamous cells are utilized in the lungs because of their flat, thin design, which makes for easy transfer of oxygen from the lungs to the blood. - Stratified cells are used to build wall-like structures and would be too thick for gas diffusion. - Transitional epithelium is made of multiple layers of cells that can expand and contract and is used in the urinary bladder and urethra, both of which require their ability to expand and stretch with fluid. #### *Epithelial Membranes*: - Generally, membranes are sheetlike structures found throughout the body that perform special functions. - Membranes can be classified as organs. - Membranes classified as epithelial membranes possess a layer of epithelial tissue and a thin bottom layer of specialized connective tissue. **Epithelial membranes**: Can be classified into three general categories: ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 1\. Cutaneous The main organ of the integumentary system, commonly known as your skin.\ \ Functions like a tarp placed over a boat.\ \ Makes up approximately 16% of total body weight.\ \ Skin is the largest organ. --------------- -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 2\. Serous A two-layered membrane with a potential (fluid-filled) space in between.\ \ Comprised of the parietal and visceral layers. Parietal Parietal means "wall"; this membrane lines the wall of the ventral body cavities in which organs reside.\ \ Produces serous fluid, which reduces friction between different tissues and organs. (Without this friction-reducing fluid, each heartbeat and every breath would be uncomfortable. The effect is similar to running water over a sheet of plastic placed on the grass. You can run, jump, and slide on the plastic. Imagine how that would feel without the water running over the plastic!) Also effectively adheres the layers together like a wet glass on a coaster. Visceral The combining form viscer/o refers to organs; therefore, this membrane wraps around the individual organs.\ \ Also produces serous fluid, which reduces friction between different tissues and organs. 3\. Mucous Lines openings to the outside world, such as your digestive tract, respiratory system, and urinary and reproductive tracts.\ \ Called mucous membranes because they contain specialized cells that produce mucus. Mucus can act as a lubricant, like the oil in a car. Mucus also serves several other important purposes besides grossing you out, as you will see in future chapters. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ ### Connective Tissue **Connective Tissue:** - Is the most common tissue, is found throughout the body. - Is found in organs, bones, nerves, muscles, membranes, and skin. - They hold things together, providing structure and support, storing fluids and nutrients, and defending against infection. - Is structurally different from epithelial tissue because it has relatively fewer cells, and these cells are embedded in an extracellular matrix that gives each type of connective tissue its properties. - An matrix is a noncellular material in which cells can be embedded (think of a gelatin mold with gelatin and fruit inside) - **It can be divided into four subcategories:** - Connective tissue proper - Cartilage - Bone - Blood/lymph fluid. A. **Connective tissue proper** a. **Areolar tissue (also known as loose connective tissue):** Fine, delicate webs of loose connective tissue (spiderwebs) that holds tissues and organs together. b. **Adipose tissue (also known as loose connective tissue):** Fat is also a loose connective tissue (used for energy storage and cushioning). c. **Dense connective tissue:** Forming strong cord like structures similar to wire cables on suspension bridges. Tendons and ligaments are composed of dense connective tissue. B. **Cartilage and bone** d. Cartilage has its cells (chondrocytes) embedded in tiny holes (lacunae: an empty space or hollow) in a gelatinous matrix. e. Is much firmer tissue than connective tissue proper and is able to withstand pressure. f. Bone is the hardest of your body's tissues and bone cells (osteocytes), like cartilage cells, live in a lacune. g. Bone matrix, however, is made of mainly calcium and phosphate and thus is very hard. h. Cartilage and bone are the main tissues of your skeleton, which supports your body and stores nutrients and minerals. C. **Blood and Lymph as Connective Tissues:** i. Blood and lymph are fluid but are considered to be connective tissue because they are a liquid mixture comprised of a group of cells that have specialized functions. j. These fluid connective tissues contain specialized cells and dissolved proteins suspended in a watery substance. ![A diagram of the muscles of the arm Description automatically generated](media/image4.png) #### Connective Tissue Membrane **The membrane type associated with connective tissue is the synovial membrane.** - Synovial membrane: The membrane lining a capsule of the synovial joint. - This membrane is found in the spaces between joints and produces a slippery substance called synovial fluid, which greatly reduces friction when joints move. ### Muscle Tissue Muscle tissue provides the means for movement, by and within the body. This form of tissue has the ability to shorten itself (contractility). There are three types of muscle tissue: - Skeletal - Cardiac - Smooth muscle **[Skeletal muscle (striated muscle, voluntary muscle):]** one of the three types of muscles in the body, but the only muscle that is under voluntary, conscious control. Under a microscope, skeletal muscle has a striated appearance. - **[Striated muscle]**: Muscles with lines on the surface of the muscle fibers when viewed under a microscope. Both skeletal and cardiac muscles are striated. Smooth muscle is not. - The cells that make up this tissue are long and fiberlike, with many nuclei in each cell. - It causes movement by contracting and relaxing. - When your brain thinks above moving or speaking it causes the correct **[Cardiac muscle (involuntary muscle): ]** - Found in the walls of the heart. - Is considered involuntary muscle because heart beats without conscious input. - Like skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle is striated, but the cells are branched and have a single nucleus in each cell. - The cells in this tissue type interlock with each other, promoting more efficient contraction. **[Smooth muscle (visceral muscle, involuntary muscle):]** One of three muscles that is involuntarily controlled and found in the lining of the airways, blood vessels, and uterus. It is not striated. - Smooth muscle tissue forms the walls of hollow organs, such as in our digestive system (which is why it is often called a visceral muscle) and blood vessels. - Smooth muscle has no striations. - Cells forming this tissue are not as long and fibrous as skeletal muscles and each cell only has one nucleus. - The ability to move food through the esophagus is a result of a series of smooth muscle contractions called **[peristalsis.]** ### Nervous Tissue: Nervous Tissue: - Acts as a rapid messenger service for the body, and its messages can cause actions to occur. - There are two types of nerve cells: - Neurons: An individual nerve cell. The functional part of the nervous system. - Neuroglia (sometimes called glia) (glia = glue): Cells that hold neurons in place and perform specialized tasks. Includes astrocytes, ependymal cells, microglia, oligodendrocytes (dendro = tree), satellite cells, and Schwann cells. - Glia literally means glue, hence the name for the cells that hold nerve cells together. - Dendr/o means tree and the branchlike formations that make up part of the neuro, called dendrites receive sensory information. - The trunk shaped structure, called axon (a single elongated branches at the opposite end from the dendrites -- it receives an electrical impulse and releases neurotransmitters into the synapse -- axons are covered by an insulating layer of myelin), transports information away from the cell body. - There are membranes associated with nervous tissue, covering the brain and spinal cord, called **[meninges]**. Neurons: Conduct information. - Dendrites (branch-like formations on neurons) RECEIVE sensory information and bring the electrical impulse TOWARDS the cell body. - Axons (trunk shape structures) transport information AWAY from the cell body. Myelin sheath: - An insulating layer. - Multiple sclerosis occurs due to the patient's immune system attacking the myelin sheath of nerves, which results in issues with impulses transmission and movement. #### Nervous tissue membranes: - **Meninges**: Are membranes associated with nervous tissue, covering the brain and spinal cord. - If these membranes swell due to infection, it is referred to as meningitis (it is = inflammation) - Organs: ------- An organ is the result of two or more types of tissues organized in a way that accomplishes a task that the tissues cannot do on their own. Vital organs are organs you cannot live without, such as the heart, brain, kidneys, and lungs. Organs that you can live without include your appendix, spleen, and gallbladder. Body System Organ/Structures Combing form Medical Specialty ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Integumentary Skin\ dermat/o, cutane/o\ [**[Dermatology]**](https://plus.pearson.com/courses/urn:xl-hed:course:7987374/products/72N23LI7V1Q/pages/Z08_COLB6818_04_SE_GLOS.xhtml#gloss_272) (DUR mah TOL oh jee) Hair\ trich/o, pil/o\ Nails\ ung/o\ Sweat glands\ sud/o, hidr/\ Sebaceous glands seb/o ---------------------- ---------------------- ------------------------- ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Musculoskeletal Muscles\ my/o, muscul/o\ [**[Orthopedics]**](https://plus.pearson.com/courses/urn:xl-hed:course:7987374/products/72N23LI7V1Q/pages/Z08_COLB6818_04_SE_GLOS.xhtml#gloss_719) (OR thoh PEE diks)\ Bones\ oste/o\ \ Joints\ arthr/o\ [**[Rheumatology]**](https://plus.pearson.com/courses/urn:xl-hed:course:7987374/products/72N23LI7V1Q/pages/Z08_COLB6818_04_SE_GLOS.xhtml#gloss_910) (ROO mah TOL oh jee) Cartilage chrondr/o Endocrine Thyroid gland\ thyr/o\ [**[Endocrinology]**](https://plus.pearson.com/courses/urn:xl-hed:course:7987374/products/72N23LI7V1Q/pages/Z08_COLB6818_04_SE_GLOS.xhtml#gloss_323) (EN doh krin OL oh jee)\ Pituitary gland\ pituit/o\ [**[Internal medicine]**](https://plus.pearson.com/courses/urn:xl-hed:course:7987374/products/72N23LI7V1Q/pages/Z08_COLB6818_04_SE_GLOS.xhtml#gloss_516)\ Testes\ test/o, orchi/o\ \ Ovaries\ ovari/o, oophor/o\ [**[Gynecology]**](https://plus.pearson.com/courses/urn:xl-hed:course:7987374/products/72N23LI7V1Q/pages/Z08_COLB6818_04_SE_GLOS.xhtml#gloss_446) (GUY neh KOL oh jee) Adrenal glands\ adren/o\ Pancreas\ pancreat/o\ Parathyroid glands\ parathyroid/o\ Pineal gland\ pineal/o\ Thymus gland thym/o Cardiovascular Heart\ cardi/o\ [**[Cardiology]**](https://plus.pearson.com/courses/urn:xl-hed:course:7987374/products/72N23LI7V1Q/pages/Z08_COLB6818_04_SE_GLOS.xhtml#gloss_145) (car dee OL oh jee)\ Blood\ hemat/o, hem/o\ [**[Hematology]**](https://plus.pearson.com/courses/urn:xl-hed:course:7987374/products/72N23LI7V1Q/pages/Z08_COLB6818_04_SE_GLOS.xhtml#gloss_453) (HEE mah TOL oh jee)\ Arteries\ arteri/o\ [**[Internal medicine]**](https://plus.pearson.com/courses/urn:xl-hed:course:7987374/products/72N23LI7V1Q/pages/Z08_COLB6818_04_SE_GLOS.xhtml#gloss_516) Veins\ phleb/o, ven/o, veni/o\ Vessels angi/o Lymphatic and immune Spleen\ splen/o\ [**[Immunology]**](https://plus.pearson.com/courses/urn:xl-hed:course:7987374/products/72N23LI7V1Q/pages/Z08_COLB6818_04_SE_GLOS.xhtml#gloss_495) (IM yoo NOL oh jee) Lymph vessels/nodes\ lymph/o\ Thymus gland thym/o Respiratory Nose\ nas/o, rhin/o\ [**[Otorhinolaryngology]**](https://plus.pearson.com/courses/urn:xl-hed:course:7987374/products/72N23LI7V1Q/pages/Z08_COLB6818_04_SE_GLOS.xhtml#gloss_736) (OH toh RYE noh LAHR in gol oh jee)\ Pharynx\ pharyng/o\ [**[Thoracic]**](https://plus.pearson.com/courses/urn:xl-hed:course:7987374/products/72N23LI7V1Q/pages/Z08_COLB6818_04_SE_GLOS.xhtml#gloss_1051) (thoh RASS ik) surgery\ Larynx\ laryng/o\ \ Trachea\ trache/o\ [**[Pulmonology]**](https://plus.pearson.com/courses/urn:xl-hed:course:7987374/products/72N23LI7V1Q/pages/Z08_COLB6818_04_SE_GLOS.xhtml#gloss_866) (pull mon OL oh jee)\ Lungs\ pneum/o\ [**[Internal medicine]**](https://plus.pearson.com/courses/urn:xl-hed:course:7987374/products/72N23LI7V1Q/pages/Z08_COLB6818_04_SE_GLOS.xhtml#gloss_516) Bronchial tubes bronch/o Gastrointestinal Mouth\ or/o\ [**[Gastroenterology]**](https://plus.pearson.com/courses/urn:xl-hed:course:7987374/products/72N23LI7V1Q/pages/Z08_COLB6818_04_SE_GLOS.xhtml#gloss_411) (GAS troh EN ter OL oh jee)\ Pharynx\ pharyng/o\ [**[Internal medicine]**](https://plus.pearson.com/courses/urn:xl-hed:course:7987374/products/72N23LI7V1Q/pages/Z08_COLB6818_04_SE_GLOS.xhtml#gloss_516)\ Esophagus\ esophag/o\ \ Stomach\ gastr/o\ \ Small intestine\ enter/o\ [**[Proctology]**](https://plus.pearson.com/courses/urn:xl-hed:course:7987374/products/72N23LI7V1Q/pages/Z08_COLB6818_04_SE_GLOS.xhtml#gloss_841) (prok TOL oh jee) procto = anus Colon\ col/o, colon/o\ Liver\ hepat/o\ Gallbladder\ cholecyst/o\ Pancreas pancreat/o Urinary Kidneys\ nephr/o, ren/o\ [**[Nephrology]**](https://plus.pearson.com/courses/urn:xl-hed:course:7987374/products/72N23LI7V1Q/pages/Z08_COLB6818_04_SE_GLOS.xhtml#gloss_678) (ne Ureters\ ureter/o\ Bladder\ cyst/o, vesic/o\ Urethra urethr/o ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Stem Cells -- Clinical Application ---------------------------------- Stem cells are undifferentiated or unspecialized cells that can be induced to become tissue or organ-specific cells. Because they have the ability for cell division, they can actually grow new healthy tissue. Therefore, stem cells can serve as an internal repair system for certain tissues. Stem cells can be harvested from both adult and embryonic sources. A recent type of stem cell is produced from genetically reprogrammed adult cells to assume a stem cell state (induced pluripotent stem cells \[iPSCs\]). *Pluripotent* means the ability of a cell to differentiate into a variety of cell types. **Regenerative medicine**: Is a branch of medicine that studies the possibility of growing human tissue and organs to replace those damaged by disease or injury. Systems: -------- A system is formed by organs that work together to accomplish something more complex than what a single organ can do on its own. There are 11 major body systems. Each system is interrelated, often depending on other systems for proper functioning of your body. - Skeletal - Respiratory - Muscular - Lymphatic/immune - Integumentary - Gastrointestinal - Nervous - Urinary - Endocrine - Reproductive - Cardiovascular **[Skeletal System]** - The skeletal system provides support and structure for the body. - It protects organs. - In combination with muscles, it provides movement. - It acts as a storage vault for a variety of minerals, such as calcium and phosphorus. - It produces blood cells. - The main components of this system are the bones, joints, ligaments, and cartilage. **[Muscular System:]** - **The muscular system is composed of voluntary and involuntary muscle groups.** - **[Voluntary muscles: ]** - Responsible for movement created by conscious thought. - Consists of skeletal muscles attached to your bones. - **[Involuntary muscles:]** - Perform without conscious thought - Classified as smooth muscle or cardiac muscle. - Found in blood vessels, airways, and organs. **[Integumentary System:]** - The skin is the body's first line of protection. - The skin regulates temperature through sweating, shivering, and changes in diameter of blood vessels. - Contains sensors that receive information from the outside world (heat, cold, pain, pressure, etc). - Glands in the skin help lubricate and waterproof it and inhibit growth of unwanted bacteria. - Main components of the integumentary system include skin, hair, sweat glands, sebaceous glands, and nails. **[Nervous system:]** - The nervous system has three main functions. - Sensory - Receiving messages. - Processing and interpreting messages - Motor -- acting on those messages/sending messages. - Sends and receives messages, stimulated by the body's internal and external environments, affecting how we perceive the world and protecting us from harm. - Conscious sensations occur as a result of stimulation of our sensory receptors. - Sensations: A feeling or awareness as a result of the stimulation of sensory receptors. - Main parts include: - Spinal cord - Brain - Peripheral Nerves - Nerve cells (glia and neurons) - Spinal fluid - Special sensory organs: eyes, ears, nose, tongue, and skin. **[Endocrine System:]** - Acts as a control center for virtually of the body's organs. - Endocrine glands release chemicals (hormones) that circulate via the cardiovascular system. - Regulates metabolic processes. - Utilizes metabolites for growth and reproduction. - The endocrine system helps to regulate fluid and electrolyte balance and also helps to cope with stresses produced by infection and trauma. - Main components: - Hypothalamus - Pineal gland - Thyroid and parathyroid glands. - Thymus - Adrenal glands - Pancreas - Gonads **[Cardiovascular System:]** - Also called the circulatory system, this is the main transportation system to each cell of our body. - Water, oxygen, and a variety of nutrients and substances required for life are transported to the cells, while waste products are removed from the cells. - Main components: - Heart - Arteries - Veins - Capillaries - Blood **[Respiratory System:]** - Supplies the cells with oxygen and removes carbon dioxide without conscious effort. - Filters, warms, and moistens inhaled air. - The mucous lining of the airway helps to trap foreign particles and germs. - Helps to maintain the proper acid-base balance. - Main components: - Nose - Nasal cavity - Trachea - Larynx - Pharynx - Bronchial tubes - Lungs **[Lymphatic and Immune System:]** - Helps maintain proper fluid balance. - Protection from infection. - Lymph nodes act as filters to capture unwanted infectious agents. - Produces special white blood cells, called T-lymphocytes to fight infection. - Major components: - Lymph vessels - Lymph ducts - Lymph nodes - Thymus gland - Tonsils - Spleen **[Gastrointestinal System/Digestive System:]** - Takes raw material (food) and breaks it down both mechanically and chemically into usable substances, then absorbs these substances for transportation to the cells. - Unused materials produce waste, which is transported out of the body by this system. - The main parts of this system: - Mouth - Pharynx - Esophagus - Stomach - Intestines - Accessory Organs - Bowel - Anal canal. **[Urinary System:]** - Elimination of waste products, electrolytes, drugs, toxins, excessive water. - Regulation of water, blood pressure, red blood cells, electrolyte balance, and pH system. - Main components include: - Kidneys - Ureters - Urinary bladder - Urethra. **[Reproductive System:]** - Often combined with the urinary system to make the genitourinary system or GU system. - The purpose of this system is reproduce, or make new humans. - The main female parts of this system include: - Ovaries - Uterus - Fallopian Tubes - Eggs - Vagina - The main components of the male reproductive system: - Testes - Sperm - Penis Points of Interest ================== - Cells are the basic building blocks of the body. - Tissue is a collection of similar cells that act together to perform a function. The four main types of tissues are epithelial, connective, muscle, and nervous. - Membranes are sheetlike structures found throughout the body; they perform specific functions. The four major membrane types are cutaneous, serous, mucous, and synovial. - Tissues that combine to perform a specific function or functions are called an organ. - Organs that work together, often with the help of accessory structures, to perform specific activities create a system. - There are 11 major body systems: skeletal, muscular, integumentary, nervous, endocrine, cardiovascular, respiratory, lymphatic/immune, gastrointestinal, urinary, and reproductive. Even though these are distinct systems, they are interrelated, and thfeir relationships are highlighted in upcoming chapters. Test Questions: The normal heart rate for an adult is \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ beats per minute. Group of answer choices 10-30 60-100 90-170 70-120 Negative feedback is bad for the body because it increases a change away from normal. Group of answer choices True False The study of disease is known as \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_. Group of answer choices neurology cytology pathology microbiology The term *osteoma* can be defined as \"\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_.\" Group of answer choices tumor of the eye tumor of the bone cutting of the skin cutting into the eye A disease that is endemic spreads worldwide. Group of answer choices True False Which system would most likely be used to calculate the amount of medication to give by weight to a premature infant? Group of answer choices National Metric American Imperial English Which is NOT a definition for *disease*? Group of answer choices Anything that upsets normal structure or function Not at ease A condition in which the body fails to function normally Anything that is a normal structure or function A sign that could be an indication of diabetes is breath that smells like \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_. Group of answer choices clay or starchy paste maple fruit-flavored chewing gum sweat A microscope views small objects. Group of answer choices True False A plane is an imaginary line dividing the body into \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_. Group of answer choices squares organs tissues sections A plane that divides the body into upper and lower portions is a \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ plane. Group of answer choices coronal sagittal midsagittal transverse Trendelenburg position may be contraindicated in patients with \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_. Group of answer choices cerebral injury lung secretions hypertension skin disease Knowing the exact body region of a sign or symptom can help a healthcare worker determine the \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_. Group of answer choices extent of injury proper diagnosis patient\'s size proper medication *Medial* means \"to the side.\" Group of answer choices True False The \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ contains the heart, lungs, and large blood vessels. Group of answer choices cranial cavity thoracic cavity abdominopelvic cavity spinal cavity By placing your fingers at the T5 vertebra, you can locate which organ? Group of answer choices Lung Spleen Kidney Brain Pain in the \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ can be a sign of appendicitis. Group of answer choices LLQ LUQ RUQ RLQ A person is in the anatomical position when he or she is standing erect and facing forward, with feet parallel and arms hanging at the side with palms facing backward. Group of answer choices True False The nose is inferior to the eyes and superior to the mouth. Group of answer choices True False Many carbohydrates are energy storage molecules. Group of answer choices True False Which molecules are scientists studying to understand the nature of cell control and genetics? Group of answer choices Phospholipids Steroids Nucleic acids Amino acids A teenager with anorexia nervosa has an illness that seriously affects metabolism. Which process could be fatal? Group of answer choices Anabolism Cellular respiration Catabolism Dehydration synthesis reactions \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ is a high-energy molecule made and spent by cells during metabolism. Group of answer choices AMP ATP A&P ADP Lead is a biological molecule. Group of answer choices True False All bonds are polar bonds. Group of answer choices True False Chemistry is not important in anatomy and physiology. Group of answer choices True False \*\*Which analogy best describes the relationship between hydrophilic molecules and hydrophobic molecules? Group of answer choices Enemies Friendship Irritation Toleration In a solution, the \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ is dissolved in the \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_. Group of answer choices solvent; solute solute; solvent molecule; element element; molecule Which molecules speed up the rate of biological reactions? Group of answer choices Enzymes Antibodies Proteins ATP \*\*\*Filtration of the blood takes place in which organ? Group of answer choices Kidney Heart Stomach Lungs Microorganisms that normally live within or on the human body are collectively called \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_. Group of answer choices cancer cells epithelial cells white blood cells normal flora Which organelles are called the \"power plants\" of the cell? Group of answer choices Ribosomes Mitochondria Lysosomes Golgi apparatuses All of the following can reproduce asexually EXCEPT \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_. Group of answer choices plant cells viruses animal cells bacteria \*\*\* Proteins prevent ions from crossing cell membranes. Group of answer choices True False The most important molecules for making the cell membrane selectively permeable are \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_. Group of answer choices phospholipids cholesterol molecules carbohydrates ATP molecules The organelles that provide 95% of the body\'s energy are \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_. Group of answer choices mitochondria ribosomes cytoplasm adenosines What term is used for the division of cells necessary for sexual reproduction? Group of answer choices Cytokinesis Metastasis Mitosis Meiosis Metastasis is the spreading of benign cancer cells. Group of answer choices True False Chromatin is found in the nucleus. Group of answer choices True False Which of the following is NOT a vital sign? Group of answer choices Respiratory rate Odor Temperature Heart rate The study of physiology deals with \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_. Group of answer choices functions disease genetics structures Common vehicle transmission occurs when droplets containing a pathogen are spread through the air. Group of answer choices True False *Leuk/o-* is the combining form for cell. Group of answer choices True False The cause of a disease is called its \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_. Group of answer choices prognosis pathology nosocomial etiology Anatomy focuses on the function and vital processes of the human body. Group of answer choices True False Volumes expressed as ounces, pints, quarts, gallons, pecks, bushels, or cubic feet are examples of the \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_. Group of answer choices International System scientific notation English system metric system The prefix *hyper-* means \"\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_.\" Group of answer choices above normal within below normal small An appendectomy is surgical removal of the appendix. Group of answer choices True False Your patient complains of pain in the area of the liver. In which quadrant is the pain located? Group of answer choices LLQ LUQ RUQ RLQ A young girl falls while riding her bicycle. Initially she seems fine, but later she complains of severe femoral pain. Where is her pain? Group of answer choices Her lower leg Her foot Her knee Her thigh The opposite of superficial is lateral. Group of answer choices True False Peripheral refers to the torso and head. Group of answer choices True False The heart and lungs are located in the \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ cavity. Group of answer choices abdominal thoracic posterior pelvic A \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ plane would divide the eyes from the back of the head. Group of answer choices transverse frontal sagittal midsagittal Trendelenburg position may be contraindicated in patients with \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_. Group of answer choices hypertension skin disease lung secretions cerebral injury The prone position \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_. Group of answer choices helps move secretions from the lungs is also called the anatomical position describes the body lying face upward describes the body lying face downward The nose is inferior to the eyes and superior to the mouth. Group of answer choices True False In a typical atom with three positively charged protons, how many negatively charged electrons would be present? Group of answer choices 3 4 1 0 \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ is a high-energy molecule made and spent by cells during metabolism. Group of answer choices ADP A&P ATP AMP The building blocks of proteins are \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_. Group of answer choices Lewis acids oleic acids amino acids nucleic acids Going up in levels from the individual atom to the entire organism, which body components are listed in ascending order? Group of answer choices Organelles, cells, tissues Molecules, tissues, organelles Tissues, cells, organs Cells, molecules, organs In a person with diabetes, blood may often become more acidic than normal. What blood pH might you expect in a person with untreated diabetes? Group of answer choices 10.5 4.0 7.4 7.1 Disaccharides are a type of lipid. Group of answer choices True False Which molecules speed up the rate of biological reactions? Group of answer choices ATP Enzymes Antibodies Proteins A sterile solution of normal saline with added antibiotics was slowly dripping into a patient\'s veins. Which solute is being used in the same concentration as in the blood? Group of answer choices Sodium hydroxide **Sodium chloride** Sodium bicarbonate Sodium phosphate Which analogy best describes the relationship between anabolism and catabolism? Group of answer choices **Biological and chemical** Frontal and peripheral locations Building up and adding on Black and white Which of the following is NOT a function of the cell membrane? Group of answer choices Holding the cell together Protein synthesis Identifying

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