BIO-REVIEWER PDF

BIO REVIEWER Gregor Mendel/Gregor Johann Mendel \- father of genetics \- discovered the fundamental laws of inheritance (Breeding a plea plant (flower) pisium satirum) Chromosome- thread-like structures located inside the nucleus of animal and plant cells \* made of protein \*composed of DNA \...

BIO REVIEWER Gregor Mendel/Gregor Johann Mendel \- father of genetics \- discovered the fundamental laws of inheritance (Breeding a plea plant (flower) pisium satirum) Chromosome- thread-like structures located inside the nucleus of animal and plant cells \* made of protein \*composed of DNA \* carry genetic into which can be pass from one generation to another 46 chromosome in humans (23pairs) 1-44th - autosome 45-46 - chromosome - sex chromosomes Types of Cell \*sex cell \*somatic cell Shortest chromosome - 21 Longest chromosome - 1 Heredity - passing of traits from parent to offspring Genetics - study of how traits are pass from one generation to next Fertilization - the fusion of sex cell/ gametes \***DNA** - deoxyribonucleic acid - serve to carry genomic info \***RNA** - ribonucleic acid \***Gene** - a segment of DNA Structure of DNA - Double helix **Karyotype -** a visual representation of an individual\'s complete set of chromosomes PUNNETT SQUARE (Reginald Punnett) Purpose of punnett square 1. To determine the possible offspring 2. To determine the trait 3. The percentage 4. Predict the genotype and phenotype 5. Helps to predict the variations and probabilities that come from cross breeding Monohybrid Cross - crossing of two pure breed organisms \- [process of mating between 2 individuals w/ dominant genotypes, homozygous genotypes or alleles w/ heredity characteristics.] Monohybrid Inheritance - involving one pair of contrasting characteristics \- [Inheritance of characteristics controlled by a single gene. (mono = one)] Homozygous Recessive -two identical genes \- [an organisms w/ two of the same recessive alle ] Homozygous Dominant - carrying two dominany allele \- [a genotype where individual inherites two copies of a dominant gene.] Heterozygous - with one dominant allele and one recessive allele \- [term that describes having 2 different version of the same gene.] Genotype - these are gene that is responsible for the observe character \- [term that refers to 2 allele present at a specific focus in the genome.] \- [the entire genetic makeup of an individual] Phenotype - the observable expression of trait Recessive Allele - not observable allele \- [does not produce a trait at all when only one copy is present.] Dominant Allele - observe allele \- [produce a dominant phenotype in individuals who have one copy of the allele, which can come from just one parent]. Parental Generation - the first organisms that are crossed in breeding experiment. \- [the first set of parent crossed] Pure Breeding - produce only one form of particular trait \- [offspring resulting from a true breeding] Allele - the responsible for the observe trait (different kinds of traits) \- [alternative form or version of a gene] \- [pair of gene that occupy a specific location on a particular chromosome and control the same trait] Selective Breeding - when humans choose specific animals or plants to reproduce based on desired traits ([pili lang]) Hybridization - the process of crossing two different species or varieties to create offspring with traits from both parents [.] Transgenic Organism - [an organism that has been genetically modified to include DNA from a different species.] (pinalitan ng gene) Gene Pharming - [ the process of using genetically modified animals to produce pharmaceutical substances]. (gumagamit ng gene para gumawa ng gamot) Knockout Mouse - [a lab-created mouse with a specific gene turned off to help researchers understand the gene\'s role in health and disease.](mga pinag-aaralan na hayop) Xenotransplantation - [the process of transplanting organs or tissues from one species to another, like from pigs to humans.] (paglilipat ng organs or tissue mula sa isang species papunta sa isa) Gene Therapy - [Using genes to treat or prevent diseases] Genome - [All the DNA in an organism] CRISPR - [A tool to easily edit genes] Gene Expression - [How genes create proteins] Cloning - [Making an identical copy of an organism.] [LAW OF SEGREGATION] DEFINITION \- The Law of Segregation states that during the formation of gametes (spermcell and egg cels), each parents two alleles for a trait separates, so each gamete gets only one allele. ORIGIN \- The law of segregation originates from the work of Gregor Mendel, an Austrian monk and scientist, who is often called the "father of genetics" MENDEL'S EXPERIMENT \* MONOHYBRID CROSS \- is a genetic experiment where two organisms with different variations of one specific traits are breed together IMG\_256 \* F1 GENERATION \- an F1 generation cross is where two different parent organisms are breed together to produce their first set of offspring. These offspring are hybrid, meaning they have a mix of traits from both parents. \* F2 GENERATION \- an F2 generation is when two F1 generation orgamisms (the first set of offspring) are breed together to produce the second set of offspring, known as the f2 generation.  The law of segregation is a fundamental concept in genetic traits that explains how traits are inherited [LAW OF INDEPENDENT ASSORTMENT] \- During gamete formation, different pairs of alleles segregate independently of each other \- gametes are egg and sperm that are formed during meosis \*[In meosis the gamete are giving just half of the genome of the parent, each parent has two copies of every autosomal gene and they can only give one of the two allele to each egg or sperm they create. ] Mendel's law of independent assortment states that "Members of one pair of alleles separate independently of members of another pair of alleles at gamete formation." The \*\*Law of Independent Assortment\*\* means that when parents pass genes to their babies, each trait is passed on separately, so different traits mix and match in various ways. What will happen if you cross heterozygous dominant plant with a homozygous recessive allele? GAMETE FORMATION T=tall G=green t=dwarf g=yellow 462542956\_551478014395465\_1419205108995123616\_n  FOUR DIFFERENT PHENOTYPES Ratio - 1:1:1:1 Phenotypes The law of independent assortment applies because the genes are located on the different chromosome [CODOMINANCE] \- [The term codominance is the combination of co-means "together" and dominance] What is codominance? \- [Codominance occurs when both traits are fully expressed.] This usually results in a spotted or speckled pattern in the offspring IMG\_256 \- A form of inheritance wherein the alleles of a gene pair in a heterozygote are fully expressed \- As a result, the phenotype of the offspring is a combination of the phenotype of the parents \- [It is commonly found in plants and animals having more than one pigment color.] IMG\_256 [INCOMPLETE DOMINANCE ] DEFINITION \- Incomplete dominance is a form of intermediate inheritance in which one allele for a particular trait is not expressed completely over its paired allele. WHAT IS INCOMPLETE DOMINANCE? \- Incomplete dominance is when neither allele in a gene pair completely dominates the other, resulting in a blended or intermediate trait. [For example, if a red flower and a white flower are crossed, the offspring might have pink flowers, showing a mix of both parent colors]. How does incomplete dominance work? \- [Incomplete dominance occurs when neither allele for a trait completely masks the other. Instead, the heterozygous offspring express a blended phenotypes, a mix of two homozygous parents.] IMG\_256 [MULTIPLE ALLELES] DEFINITION \- Multiple alleles refers to the existence of three or more gene variants (allele) within a population. \- [In doing so, genetic variety is encouraged. Multiple allelism happens when a population carriers more than two version of a gene], but mendelian inheritance normally includes two alleles (dominant and recessive). Human ABO blood groupings is one example. IMG\_256 **- Multiple alleles** refer to the existence of more than two forms of a gene that control a particular trait. [While an individual can only inherit two alleles for a given gene (one from each parent), multiple alleles in the population mean there is greater genetic diversity.] [SEX LINKED] Thomas Morgan \*the first scientist to study sex linked genes WHAT IS SEX LINKED? \- It refers to a characteristics (or traits) that are influenced by genes carried on the sex chromosomes. SEX CHROMOSOMES \- it is the sex chromosomes that determines whether the offspring are male or female. SEX LINKED INHERITANCE \- sex linked inheritance is the transmission of characters and their determining genes and sex determining genes on the sex chromosomes, therefore, are inherited together from one generation to the next. Two Types of Sex Linked Inheritance: X-LINKED INHERITANCE \- the gene causing the trait or the disorder is located on the x chromosomes Y. LINKED INHERITANCE \- a condition is considered Y linked if the altered gene that causes the disorder is located on the Y chromosome. SEX-LIMITED TRAITS -Traits controlled by autosomal genes, whose expression is limited to the one of the sexes because of sex hormones. SEX-INFLUENCED TRAITS -Traits controlled by autosomal genes, which are expressed as dominant in one sex and as recessive in the other because of sex hormones. IMG\_256 [DNA AND RNA] WHAT IS DNA? \- DNA is the molecule that carries genetics information for the development and function of organisms. \- DNA is made up of two linked strands that wind around each other to resemble a twisted ladder a shape know double helix. WHO WAS THE FATHER OF DNA? \- Dr. James D. Watson is widely regarded as the father of DNA science DNA STRUCTURE \- The structure of DNA is illustrated by a right handed double helix , with a 10 nucleotides pairs per helical turn. \- A molecule consist of two strands, each composed of sugar-phosphate backbone and attached bases. \- The two strands are held together by hydrogen bonding (non-covalent) between complementary bases. Adenine (A) with thymine (T) and guanine (G) with cytosine (C). This double-stranded structure forms a double helix, often linked to a twisted ladder. DNA HAS THREE MAIN COMPONENTS: 1. Deoxyribose (a pentose sugar) 2. Nitrogen base 3. Phosphate group 1. DEOXYRIBOSE SUGAR \- Deoxyribose is a pentose monosaccharide, a pentose sugar has five carbon atoms. \- Deoxyribose found in DNA, is a modified sugar, lacking one oxygen atom. 2. NITROGEN BASE \- they are divided into two groups: \*PYRIMIDINES -thymine -cytosine \*PURINES -adenine -guanine 3. PHOSPHATE GROUP \- A deoxyribose-phosphate backbone joins together nucleotides in DNA sequence. \- This backbone is composed of alternating sugar and phosphate groups. NUCLEOSIDES & NUCLEOTIDE - A nucleoside consist simply of a nitrogen base, and a five carbon sugar - A nucleotide is composed of a nitrogen base, a five carbon and one or more phosphate groups DNA FUNCTION - Storing function for making proteins. - Carrying heredity information - Coding proteins essential for cell growth and development - Providing direction for life process RNA (RIBONUCLEIC ACID) WHAT IS RNA \- Ribonucleic acid is a nucleic acid present in all living cells that has structural similarities to DNA. WHO DISCOVER RNA? In the 20^th^ century, first findings on RNA were biochemist is Walter Siegfried Albrecht discover that RNA is a molecule distinct from DNA. NUCLEIC ACID \- are organic compounds that function as storage of genetic information, which is transmitted from one generation to the next in all living organisms. - It is the physical carrier of inheritance that is passed from parents to offspring - Also function in protein synthesis as they carry the code needed in the formation of specific proteins TYPES OF NUCLEIC ACID \>DNA \>RNA NUCLEOTIDE IS MADE UP OF \- a five-carbon sugar, a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base DEOXYRIBOSE ACID OR DNA - James Watson and Francis Crick describe the structure of DNA as a double helix of repeating nucleotides that are made up of a sugar (Deoxyribose) a nitrogenous base that is either purine (A&T) or a pyrimide (T&C) - The pairing of nitrogenous base is so specific - Genes refers to a specific sequence of nitrogenous bases that codes for specific protein. - DNA can be compared to a blueprint of guidelines that the body must follow to exist and function properly - RNA, on the other hand,helps to carry out the blueprint's guidelines. - RNA ia able to perform variety of function and thus, is more adverse - DNA ia able to carry complex information for longer periods of time and is thus more stable \- DNA structure is made up of molecules called nucleotides KEY FEATURES OF DNA AS GENETIC MATERIAL - DNA IS STORED- organized into genes and package in chromosomes - DNA IS REPLICATED- duplicates genetic information with high fidelity - DNA IS EXPRESSED- provide with a mechanism to affect phenotypes - DNA IS DIVERSIFIED- ability to mutate to produce variation and drive evolution. CENTRAL DOGMA OF MOLECULAR BIOLOGY \- The central dogma of molecular biology explains how genetic information flows within a biological system. It states that DNA is transcribed into RNA, and then RNA is translated into proteins. In simple terms, it describes the process of how genetic information in DNA is used to create proteins, which are essential for the structure and function of living organisms. Here\'s a simplified pathway: 1\. DNA -\> RNA (Transcription) 2\. RNA -\> Proteins (Translation) Central Dogma of Molecular Genetics. - this flow of genetic information is from DNA to messenger RNA (mRNA) to protein GENE'S FUNCTION \- Is to control the production of proteins inside the cells of organisms GENE \- made up of a series of bases arranged in specific order. PROTEIN SYNTHESIS - The series of process involved in the production of protein - It involves the process of replication, transcription, and translation **REPLICATION** - The two DNA strands connected by hydrogen bonds separate from each other - Each old strand of the parent DNA is then used as a template for the building of a new strand in the daughter DNA - The process is called a [semi-conservative replication] because one of the complementing strands is conserved in either daughter DNA 3 STEPS OF REPLICATION - UNWINDING - BASE PAIRING - JOINING REPLICATION begins when an enzymes, dna helicase, breaks the hydrogen bonds between the nucleotides. This divides the DNA into two single strands. As the helix unwinds, new nucleotides are added to the parents strands by the enzymes DNA primase - The DNA polymerase then continues to add more complementary base pair such as that A binds to T, and C to G only - DNA polymerase does proofreading to avoid any mistakes - At the end of the replication process, the enzyme. DNA ligase seals any breaks in the new DNA strands. - Both DNA polymerase and DNA ligase also repair the DNA strands when damage by harmful radiation or toxic materials - Replication is needed to ensure that all the body cells carry the same genetic material and that instructions are copied exactly for the next generation - Helicase:Unzips the DNA helix. - Primase:Adds RNA primer to start DNA synthesis. - Ligase: Joins DNA fragments together. **TRANSCRIPTION : MAKING WORKING** **COPIES OF THE GENE** \- It is the RNA job to make blueprint copies of the DNA's instructions THREE KINDS OF RNA \> Messenger RNA (mRNA) \> Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) \> Transfer (tRNA) - Messenger RNA (mRNA) takes a message from DNA in the nucleus to the ribosomes in the cytoplasm - Transfer RNA (tRNA) transfer amino acid to the ribosomes - Ribosomal RNA (rRNA), along with ribosomal proteins, makes up the ribosomes, where polypeptides are synthesized \- In transcription, the mRNA copies specific instruction from the DNA in the nucleus so that it can bring the information to the cytoplasm for the next step. Transcription begins inside the nucleus when DNA unzips between its base pairs \- a portion of the DNA serves as a template for mRNA formation. \- the enzyme RNA polymerase initials the DNA transcription, ensures that the right sequence are transcribed and produces a complementary strands. To form a RNA strand. - mRna bases pair up with the existing DNA bases. - Cytosine pairs with Guanine but Uracil pairs up with Adenine - mRNA leaves the nucleus with the copy of the genetic instructions and enters the cytoplasm **TRANSLATION : MAKING THE PROTEIN** - Translation is the last stage in gene expression, which leads to the formation of protein - Translation is the process involved when genetic information is used to create amino acids and the corresponding proteins. \- In the cytoplasm, the mRNA attaches to a ribosomal to provide the code for the specific protein that will be made \- the three base code in the mRNA is called codon. \- during the process, the ribosome move along the mRNA strand where the codons will be read and translated \- The mRNA attaches to the inside of the ribosome Acting as the interpreter, the bases on the tRNA, called anticodon, read and translate the message by pairing up an equivalent three-letter code to the codons of the mRNA as the codon is read, tRNA bring the approiate amino acid to the ribosome. Each amino acid is presented by certain codons. The genetic code is a universal language that translates the DNA sequence into amino acids, the building blocks of proteins. It does this by matching three-letter combinations of nitrogenous bases (codons) to specific amino acids. For example, the codon GUA corresponds to the amino acid valine. **BIO-TECHNOLOGY** \- Biotechnology uses living organisms, like bacteria or plants, to make useful products. For example, it helps create medicines, like insulin, and improves crops to grow better and resist pests. It\'s a field that combines biology and technology to solve problems and improve lives. Molecular Biology Techniques - PCR (Polymerase Chain Reaction): Amplifying DNA sequences. - Gel Electrophoresis: Separating DNA fragments by size. - DNA Sequencing: Determining the sequence of nucleotides in DNA. APPLICATION - Pharmaceuticals: Producing drugs and vaccines. - Diagnostics: Genetic testing and disease detection. - GMOs (**Genetically Modified Organisms**): Crops with enhanced traits like pest resistance or increased yield. - Gene Pharming: Using genetically modified animals to produce pharmaceuticals. **GENETIC ENGINEERING** \- Genetic engineering involves directly changing the DNA of an organism to give it new traits. Scientists can add, remove, or modify genes to make plants resistant to pests or produce medicines. It\'s a powerful tool that combines biology and technology to improve living things. \- **Genetic Engineering**: The direct manipulation of an organism\'s DNA using biotechnology to change its characteristics. TECHNIQUES - CRISPR-Cas9: A precise tool used to edit genes by cutting DNA at specific locations and allowing natural DNA repair processes to make changes. - Gene Cloning: Making multiple copies of a particular gene. - Gene Insertion: Adding new genes to an organism\'s DNA. - Gene Deletion: Removing specific genes from an organism\'s DNA. - Gene Replacement: Replacing a gene with another gene. - DNA Ligase: An enzyme used to join DNA fragments together. - Vectors: Tools like plasmids and viruses used to deliver new genes into cells. Applications - Medical Biotechnology: Producing insulin, growth hormones, and other medicines. - Agricultural Biotechnology: Creating crops resistant to pests, diseases, and environmental conditions. - Industrial Biotechnology: Developing microorganisms to produce biofuels, degrade pollutants, and manufacture chemicals. - Environmental Biotechnology: Using genetically engineered organisms to clean up oil spills and other environmental contaminants. Key Terms - Genome: The complete set of an organism\'s DNA. - Allele: Different forms of a gene. - Genotype: The genetic makeup of an organism. - Phenotype: The observable traits of an organism. - Mutation: A change in the DNA sequence. - GMO (Genetically Modified Organism): An organism whose genetic material has been altered using genetic engineering techniques. **RECOMBINANT DNA** \- Recombinant DNA is created by combining DNA from different sources to form new genetic material. Scientists use this technique to insert specific genes into organisms, giving them new traits. It's like cutting and pasting genes to create custom DNA. Basic Concepts - Recombinant DNA**: DNA molecules formed by combining DNA from different sources.** - Vector: A tool, such as a plasmid or virus, used to transfer recombinant DNA into a host cell. - Host Cell: The cell that receives the recombinant DNA, often a bacterium or yeast. Techniques - Restriction Enzymes: Enzymes that cut DNA at specific sequences, creating fragments with \'sticky ends\' that can be joined together. - DNA Ligase: An enzyme that seals the gaps between the sticky ends of DNA fragments to form a continuous DNA strand. - Transformation: The process of introducing recombinant DNA into a host cell. - Selection Markers: Genes used to identify and select cells that have successfully taken up recombinant DNA (e.g., antibiotic resistance genes). Key Terms - Cloning: Making multiple copies of a DNA fragment. - Plasmid: A small, circular DNA molecule used as a vector in genetic engineering. - Gene Expression: The process by which information from a gene is used to synthesize functional products like proteins. - Genetic Engineering: The direct manipulation of an organism\'s genome using biotechnology.