BIO Final Exam Prep .docx

Know the different types of chemical processes and the reactions that drive them. (Anabolic, catabolic, dehydration, hydrolysis) Anabolic reactions, also known as biosynthetic reactions, involve the building up of complex molecules from simpler ones. These reactions usually require energy, which is...

Know the different types of chemical processes and the reactions that drive them. (Anabolic, catabolic, dehydration, hydrolysis) Anabolic reactions, also known as biosynthetic reactions, involve the building up of complex molecules from simpler ones. These reactions usually require energy, which is often provided by ATP (adenosine triphosphate). Anabolic processes are essential for growth, repair, and overall maintenance of cells and tissues. - Catabolic reactions involve the breaking down of complex molecules into simpler ones, releasing energy in the process. This energy is typically captured in the form of ATP, which can be used to power various cellular activities. - Dehydration reactions, also known as condensation reactions, involve the joining of two molecules with the removal of a water molecule. These reactions are common in the synthesis of polymers from monomers. - Hydrolysis reactions are the opposite of dehydration reactions. They involve the breaking down of a compound by adding a water molecule. Hydrolysis is essential for the digestion of food, where large molecules are broken down into their simpler components. - Understand protein structure and what factors impact that. **Primary Structure**: - - **Secondary Structure**: - - - - **Tertiary Structure**: - - **Quaternary Structure**: - - **Temperature**: - **pH Levels**: - **Salt Concentration**: - **Chemical Agents**: - **Genetic Mutations**: - **Post-Translational Modifications**: - Understand ph and the properties of acids, bases, and buffers. pH is a measure of how acidic or basic a solution is. It is calculated as the negative logarithm of the hydrogen ion concentration \[H+\]\[H\^+\] in a solution. The pH scale ranges from 0 to 14. - - - - - - - - - - ### **Bases:** - - - - - - - ### **Buffers:** - - - - HA+OH−→A−+H2O\\text{HA} + \\text{OH}\^- \\rightarrow \\text{A}\^- + \\text{H}\_2\\text{O} - - Know the properties of water that make it so unique **Cohesion**: Water molecules are attracted to each other due to hydrogen bonding. This cohesion leads to phenomena like surface tension, allowing small insects to walk on water. **Adhesion**: Water molecules are also attracted to other substances. This property helps water climb up plant roots and stems in a process called capillary action. Water has a high specific heat capacity, meaning it can absorb a lot of heat before its temperature rises. This property helps moderate Earth\'s climate and allows organisms to maintain stable internal temperatures. Water requires a significant amount of energy to change from a liquid to a gas. This high heat of vaporization allows for effective cooling mechanisms, such as sweating and transpiration in plants. Water is most dense at 4°C, and it expands as it freezes, making ice less dense than liquid water. This is why ice floats on water, which helps insulate aquatic life in colder climates. Water is often called the \"universal solvent\" because it can dissolve many substances. This is crucial for biological processes, as it allows nutrients and waste products to be transported in and out of cells. Water has a relatively low viscosity, which means it flows easily. This property is important for the movement of fluids in biological systems and for the transport of water in plants. Know the different types of chemical bonds Ionic bonds form when one atom transfers one or more electrons to another atom, resulting in the formation of positively and negatively charged ions. These oppositely charged ions attract each other, creating a strong bond. **Examples**: Sodium chloride (NaCl), where sodium (Na) donates an electron to chlorine (Cl). Covalent bonds occur when two atoms share one or more pairs of electrons. This type of bond usually forms between nonmetal atoms. **Types of Covalent Bonds**: - - - **Examples**: Water (H₂O), carbon dioxide (CO₂), methane (CH₄). A type of covalent bond where the electrons are shared unequally between the atoms, leading to a distribution of charge. One end of the molecule becomes slightly negative, and the other end becomes slightly positive. **Examples**: Water (H₂O), where oxygen is more electronegative than hydrogen, causing a partial negative charge on the oxygen atom and a partial positive charge on the hydrogen atoms. ydrogen bonds are weak interactions that occur when a hydrogen atom bonded to a highly electronegative atom (like oxygen or nitrogen) is attracted to another electronegative atom. **Examples**: The hydrogen bonds between water molecules, which give water its unique properties like high specific heat and surface tension. Metallic bonds form between metal atoms, where electrons are shared and move freely among a lattice of metal cations. This \"sea of electrons\" gives metals their characteristic properties, such as electrical conductivity and malleability. **Examples**: Copper (Cu), gold (Au), and iron (Fe). hese are weak, temporary attractions between molecules or atoms caused by the transient polarization of electron clouds. Van der Waals forces include dispersion forces (London forces) and dipole-dipole interactions. **Examples**: The interactions between noble gases (like argon) and between nonpolar molecules (like nitrogen gas, N₂). Know the terms hydrophobic vs hydrophilic and non polar vs polar, isomers, Hydrophobic substances are those that repel water. The term comes from the Greek words \"hydro\" (water) and \"phobos\" (fear). **Properties**: Hydrophobic molecules tend to be nonpolar and do not dissolve in water. They often form droplets or separate layers when mixed with water. **Examples**: Oils and fats. Hydrophilic substances are those that attract and interact well with water. The term comes from the Greek words \"hydro\" (water) and \"philia\" (love). **Properties**: Hydrophilic molecules tend to be polar or charged and dissolve easily in water. **Examples**: Sugar, salt, and many proteins. Nonpolar molecules have no significant charge difference across their structure, meaning the electrons are shared equally between atoms. **Properties**: Nonpolar molecules do not mix well with water (hydrophobic). They tend to have symmetrical shapes. **Examples**: Methane (CH₄), molecular nitrogen (N₂), and carbon dioxide (CO₂). Polar molecules have a significant charge difference across their structure due to unequal sharing of electrons. This creates a dipole moment where one part of the molecule is slightly negative and another part is slightly positive. **Properties**: Polar molecules mix well with water (hydrophilic). They tend to have asymmetrical shapes. **Examples**: Water (H - #### **Types of Isomers:** 1. - - 2. - - 3. - - 7. Know the components of DNA and understand complementary base pairing DNA, or deoxyribonucleic acid, is the molecule that carries the genetic instructions for life. It is composed of the following components: 1. - - - **Double Helix Structure**: DNA consists of two long strands of nucleotides that run in opposite directions (antiparallel) and twist around each other to form a double helix. The backbone of the helix is formed by the sugar-phosphate groups, with the nitrogenous bases extending inward. Complementary base pairing is the specific hydrogen bonding between nitrogenous bases in the DNA double helix. This pairing is crucial for the accurate replication and transcription of genetic information. 1. - - 2. - - **Replication**: During DNA replication, the double helix unwinds, and each strand serves as a template for the synthesis of a new complementary strand. Complementary base pairing ensures that each new DNA molecule is an exact copy of the original. **Transcription**: During transcription, a segment of DNA is used as a template to synthesize messenger RNA (mRNA). Complementary base pairing between DNA and RNA ensures accurate transcription of genetic information. Understand how saturated fat differ in structure compared to unsaturated fats ### **Saturated Fats:** - - - ### **Unsaturated Fats:** - - - Understand diffusion and osmosis including the terms (hypotonic, hypertonic, isotonic, solution, solvent, and solute) and be able to apply it to examples. ### **Diffusion:** - - ### **Osmosis:** - - ### **Key Terms:** 1. - - - 2. - - - 3. - - - 4. - - 5. - - 6. - - ### **Applying to Examples:** #### **Example 1: Red Blood Cells in Different Solutions** - - - #### **Example 2: Plant Cells in Different Solutions** - - - Know the components (organelles) of a cell and be able to apply it to examples. **Nucleus**: - - **Mitochondria**: - - **Ribosomes**: - - **Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)**: - - - **Golgi Apparatus**: - - **Lysosomes**: - - **Peroxisomes**: - - **Chloroplasts** (only in plant cells): - - **Vacuoles**: - - **Plasma Membrane**: - - **Cytoskeleton**: - - **Centrosomes and Centrioles**: - - **Muscle Cells**: High energy demands are met by numerous mitochondria, enabling sustained muscle contraction. **Leaf Cells**: Chloroplasts capture sunlight and perform photosynthesis, producing glucose for energy. **Liver Cells**: Abundant smooth ER and peroxisomes detoxify chemicals and metabolize lipids. **White Blood Cells**: Use lysosomes to digest pathogens, maintaining immune defense. 11. Be able to describe the structure and function of the cell membrane. The cell membrane, also known as the plasma membrane, is a crucial component of cells, providing a barrier and functional interface between the cell\'s internal environment and the outside world. Here\'s a detailed look at its structure and function:**Phospholipid Bilayer**: - - 1. - - 2. - 3. - ### **Function of the Cell Membrane:** 1. - 2. - - 3. - 4. - 5. - 12. Be able to compare and contrast cell types. **Prokaryotic vs. Eukaryotic Cells**: Differences in nucleus presence, size, complexity, organelles, organisms, cell division, DNA structure, and ribosomes. **Plant Cells vs. Animal Cells**: Differences in cell wall presence, chloroplasts, vacuoles, and cell shape. 13. Understand how enzymes function and their characteristics and what influences them.Enzymes are essential biological catalysts that speed up chemical reactions by lowering activation energy. They are highly specific, efficient, and regulated. Factors like temperature, pH, substrate concentration, and inhibitors can influence enzyme activity. Understanding how enzymes work and what affects them is crucial in fields like biochemistry, medicine, and biotechnology. 14. Understand patterns of inheritance (dominate, recessive, sex linked, etc) **Dominant Inheritance**: - - **Recessive Inheritance**: - - n incomplete dominance, neither allele is completely dominant over the other. The heterozygous phenotype is a blend of the two homozygous phenotypes. **Example**: In snapdragon flowers, crossing a red flower (RR) with a white flower (WW) results in pink flowers (RW). In codominance, both alleles are expressed equally in the heterozygous condition. **Example**: In human blood types, the A and B alleles are codominant. A person with genotype AB will have AB blood type, showing characteristics of both A and B alleles. - - - - ### **5. Multiple Alleles:** - - ### **6. Polygenic Inheritance:** - - ### **Application to Examples:** - - - Understanding these patterns helps explain the genetic diversity and variation observed in living organisms. If you have any more questions or need further details, feel free to ask! Be able to perform punnet squares (monohybrids, blood type and sex linked) Know the genetics terms genotype, phenotype, allele, homozygous, The genotype is the genetic makeup of an organism, consisting of all the alleles present in its DNA. It represents the combination of genes inherited from both parents. **Example**: If a pea plant has one allele for purple flowers (P) and one for white flowers (p), its genotype would be Pp. he phenotype is the observable physical or biochemical characteristics of an organism, which result from the interaction of its genotype with the environment. **Example**: The same pea plant with the genotype Pp would have the phenotype of purple flowers because the purple allele (P) is dominant over the white allele (p). An allele is one of two or more alternative forms of a gene that arise by mutation and are found at the same place on a chromosome. **Example**: For the flower color gene in pea plants, there might be a purple allele (P) and a white allele (p). An organism is homozygous for a gene if it has two identical alleles for a particular trait. This can be either homozygous dominant (PP) or homozygous recessive (pp). **Example**: A pea plant with two purple flower alleles (PP) or two white flower alleles (pp) is homozygous. An organism is heterozygous for a gene if it has two different alleles for a particular trait. **Example**: For the flower color gene in pea plants, if the plant has one allele for purple flowers (P) and one for white flowers (p), its genotype would be Pp, making it heterozygous. A gene is a segment of DNA that contains the instructions for the synthesis of a specific protein or RNA molecule. Genes are the basic units of heredity and determine the traits of an organism. **Example**: The gene for flower color in pea plants determines whether the flowers will be purple or white he genome is the complete set of an organism's DNA, including all of its genes. It encompasses all of the genetic material of an organism. **Example**: The human genome contains approximately 20,000-25,000 genes distributed across 46 chromosomes. Understand the more complex types of inheritance. ### **Incomplete Dominance:** - - ### **2. Codominance:** - - ### **3. Multiple Alleles:** - - ### **4. Polygenic Inheritance:** - - ### **5. Epistasis:** - - ### **6. Pleiotropy:** - - ### **7. Linkage and Recombination:** - - ### **8. Sex-Linked Inheritance:** - - 18. Understand the central dogma and the events and key players, and location of transcription and translation The central dogma of molecular biology describes the flow of genetic information within a biological system. This process involves two key events: transcription and translation. Here\'s a detailed look at each step and the main players involved: ### **Central Dogma of Molecular Biology:** - ### **Transcription:** **Location**: Transcription occurs in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells and in the cytoplasm of prokaryotic cells. **Initiation**: - - **Elongation**: - - **Termination**: - **RNA Processing (Eukaryotes)**: - ### **Translation:** **Location**: Translation occurs in the cytoplasm of both eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells, specifically at the ribosomes. **Events and Key Players**: 1. - - - 2. - - - 3. - - 19. Know the steps of the scientific method and key terms (CG, IV, DV, SVs) **Observation**: - - **Research**: - - **Hypothesis**: - - **Experiment**: - - **Data Collection and Analysis**: - - **Conclusion**: - - **Control Group (CG)**: - - **Independent Variable (IV)**: - - **Dependent Variable (DV)**: - - **Standardized Variables (SVs)**: - - 20. Knows ways to reduce bias in a scientific study Randomly assign subjects to different groups (e.g., control and experimental) to ensure that each group is similar and that the allocation of treatments is not influenced by selection bias. **Example**: Randomly assigning patients to receive either a new drug or a placebo in a clinical trial. The participants do not know which group they are in (control or experimental), but the researchers do. **Double-Blind**: Neither the participants nor the researchers know which group the participants are in. This prevents both participant and researcher biases. **Example**: In a double-blind drug trial, neither the patients nor the doctors know who is receiving the actual drug and who is receiving a placebo. Repeating the study or experiment multiple times to verify results and ensure they are consistent and reproducible. **Example**: Conducting the same experiment in different locations or with different populations to see if the results hold true. 21. Understand what a testable hypothesis looks like A testable hypothesis is a statement that can be investigated through experimental or observational methods to determine whether it is supported or refuted. **Specific and Clear**: The hypothesis should clearly state the expected relationship between variables and be specific enough to guide the design of the experiment. **Measurable**: The variables in the hypothesis must be quantifiable and measurable. **Based on Existing Knowledge**: The hypothesis should be grounded in existing scientific knowledge or observations. **Falsifiable**: It should be possible to refute the hypothesis through experimental or observational evidence. **Statement Form**: It should be written as a statement, not a question. **Hypothesis**: \"Plants that receive 6 hours of sunlight per day will grow taller than plants that receive 3 hours of sunlight per day.\" - - - - - 22. Know the structure and function of the 4 macromolecules-The four major macromolecules essential to life are carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids. ### **Carbohydrates:** **Structure**: - - - - **Function**: - - - ### **2. Lipids:** **Structure**: - - - - **Function**: - - - - ### **3. Proteins:** **Structure**: - - **Function**: - - - - - ### **4. Nucleic Acids:** **Structure**: - - - - **Function**: - - - 23. Understand how chemical reactions are regulated.-Chemical reactions in biological systems are tightly regulated to ensure that they occur at the right time, place, and rate ### **Enzyme Catalysis:** - - - - - ### **Compartmentalization:** - - 24. Know key energy terms: (dehydration reactions vs hydration reactions, exergonic, endergonic, catabolic, anabolic, entropy, oxidized reduced) Know key energy terms: (dehydration reactions vs hydration reactions, exergonic, endergonic, catabolic, anabolic, entropy, oxidized reduced) Sure, let\'s delve into these key energy-related terms and their meanings: ### **Dehydration Reactions vs. Hydration Reactions:** **Dehydration Reactions**: - - **Hydration Reactions**: - - ### **Exergonic vs. Endergonic:** **Exergonic Reactions**: - - **Endergonic Reactions**: - - ### **Catabolic vs. Anabolic:** **Catabolic Reactions**: - - **Anabolic Reactions**: - - ### **Entropy:** - - ### **Oxidized vs. Reduced:** **Oxidized**: - - **Reduced**: - - 25. Know cellular respiration (paying attention to the major events, key players and location)-Cellular respiration is a multi-step process that cells use to convert the energy stored in glucose into adenosine triphosphate (ATP), which cells use for energy.Cellular respiration consists of four main stages: glycolysis (in the cytoplasm), pyruvate oxidation, the citric acid cycle, and the electron transport chain (all in the mitochondria). The process converts glucose into ATP, with key players including glucose, pyruvate, acetyl-CoA, NADH, FADH₂, ATP, ADP, and oxygen. This multi-step process is essential for producing the energy that cells need to perform their functions 26. Know photosynthesis (paying attention to the major events, key players, and lcoation)-Photosynthesis is a crucial biological process by which plants, algae, and some bacteria convert light energy into chemical energy, stored in the form of glucose. This process occurs primarily in the chloroplasts of plant cells Photosynthesis can be divided into two main stages: the light-dependent reactions and the Calvin cycle (light-independent reactions). ### **1. Light-Dependent Reactions:** **Location**: Thylakoid membranes of the chloroplasts. **Major Events**: - - - - - **Key Players**: Light, chlorophyll, water (H₂O), oxygen (O₂), ATP, NADPH, photosystem II, photosystem I, electron transport chain, ATP synthase. ### **2. Calvin Cycle (Light-Independent Reactions):** **Location**: Stroma of the chloroplasts. **Major Events**: - - - **Key Players**: Carbon dioxide (CO₂), ATP, NADPH, ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate (RuBP), ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase (RuBisCO), 3-phosphoglycerate (3-PGA), glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (G3P). 27. Understand the structure of DNA and compare it between prokaryotes and eukaryotes. ### **Structure of DNA:** 1. - - 2. - ### **DNA in Prokaryotes:** 1. - 2. - - 3. - ### **DNA in Eukaryotes:** 1. - 2. - 3. - - ### **Key Differences:** 1. - - 2. - - 3. - - 4. - 28. Understand DNA replication, how it is regulated and consequences of an error.-DNA replication is a fundamental process by which a cell copies its entire genome, ensuring that each daughter cell receives an identical set of genetic information during cell division. ### **DNA Replication:** 1. - - - 2. - - - - - 3. - - - ### **Regulation of DNA Replication:** 1. - - 2. - 3. - - ### **Consequences of Errors in DNA Replication:** 1. - - 2. - - - 3. - 29. Be able to interpret a codon table 30. Know the stages of the cell cycle (mitosis and meiosis) and be able to compare and contrast them The cell cycle consists of interphase (preparation for cell division) and the mitotic phase (M phase), which includes mitosis or meiosis. Interphase is divided into three phases: G1, S, and G2. 1. - - - ### **Mitosis:** Mitosis is the process of cell division that results in two genetically identical daughter cells. It is used for growth, repair, and asexual reproduction. **Stages of Mitosis**: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. ### **Meiosis:** Meiosis is the process of cell division that results in four genetically diverse daughter cells, each with half the number of chromosomes of the original cell. It is used for sexual reproduction to produce gametes (sperm and egg cells). **Stages of Meiosis**: Meiosis consists of two consecutive divisions: meiosis I and meiosis II. #### **Meiosis I (Reductional Division):** 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. #### **Meiosis II (Equational Division):** 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 31. Understand blood typing (antigens and antibodies) Blood typing is based on the presence or absence of specific antigens on the surface of red blood cells (RBCs) and corresponding antibodies in the plasma **Antigens**: - - - - - ### **ABO Blood Group System:** - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ### **Rh Blood Group System:** - - - - - - ### **Blood Transfusion Compatibility:** - - 32. Understand restriction enzymes and be able to apply that to examples. restriction enzymes, also known as restriction endonucleases, are proteins used by bacteria as a defense mechanism against invading viral DNA. They recognize and cut DNA at specific sequences known as recognition sites. **unction**: - - **Types of Cuts**: - - - - - ### **Applications:** 1. - - 2. - - 3. - - 4. - - 33. Understand PCR and its componetns. 1. - - 2. - - 3. - - 4. - - 5. - - ### **PCR Process:** PCR consists of a series of temperature cycles, with each cycle having three main steps: denaturation, annealing, and extension. These steps are typically repeated 25-35 times to achieve significant amplification of the target DNA. 1. - - 2. - - 3. - - 34. Understand vaccines and herd immunity. - **How Vaccines Work**: 1. - 2. - - - - **Benefits of Vaccination**: - - ### **Herd Immunity:** **Definition**: - **How Herd Immunity Works**: 1. - 2. - **Example**: - 35. Be able to interpret karyotypes. ### **Steps to Interpret a Karyotype:** 1. - - 2. - - 3. - - - - - ### **Example of Interpreting a Karyotype:** **Normal Female Karyotype**: - - **Normal Male Karyotype**: - 36. Know what a GMO is, their potential benefits and potential ethical concerns **GMO** stands for **Genetically Modified Organism**. It refers to any organism whose genetic material has been altered using genetic engineering techniques. These modifications are typically made to introduce new traits or enhance existing ones, which can be beneficial in agriculture, medicine, and industry. **Potential Benefits**: Increased yield, pest resistance, reduced pesticide use, improved nutrition, and economic gains. **Ethical Concerns**: Health and safety, environmental impact, socio-economic issues, and moral considerations.