Bio Ct Review Sheet PDF

**Bio Ct review sheet** Unit 1: Diversity of living things **Heterotrophs** (consumers) -like animals and fungi obtain \- Eye spot- bright red spot that is sensitive to light and helps it find light for photosynthesis. \- Chloroplast-organelle that allows organisms to conduct photosynthesis. 1...

**Bio Ct review sheet** Unit 1: Diversity of living things **Heterotrophs** (consumers) -like animals and fungi obtain \- Eye spot- bright red spot that is sensitive to light and helps it find light for photosynthesis. \- Chloroplast-organelle that allows organisms to conduct photosynthesis. 1. **Mitosis-** The process at which a eukaryotic cell divides the genetic material in its nucleus into two new identical nuclei. **Meiosis-** 2 stage cell division which the resulting daughter cells have half the number of chromosomes as the parent cell. Resulting in the formation of gametes or spores 2. 3. **Synapsis** - The pairing up of homologous chromosomes, forming a tetrad. **Tetrad Formation** - A pair of homologous chromosomes, each with two sister chromatids. **Crossing over** - The exchange of chromosome segments between homologous pairs during synapsis. **Random Alignment -** Results in the formation of some haploid and diploid gametes. These following stages all take place and happen in Prophase I 4\. **[Karyotype -]** An individual\'s complete set of chromosomes Down syndrome - a chromosome abnormality in which there are three homologous chromosomes in a place of a homologous pair. Turner syndrome - a chromosomal abnormality in which there is a single chromosome in place of a homologous pair. Kinefelter - Normal life expectancy, taller height, longer legs, less muscle growth, absent or delayed in puberty, and mid intellectual disabilities. 5\.  6\. **[Complementary base pairing]** and **[antiparallel arrangement]** means that the strands are antiparallel, which indicates that they run in opposite directions. This is crucial for DNA replication. 7\) Mutation - A genetic change that causes new and different characteristics a - TAAGGCATTT- b- TAAGCATTT- C- TAACG CATTTT - d- TACGCAGTTT- 8\) Parent 1 (RW)xParent 2 (RW) R W R RR RW W RW WW 9\. The heterozygote in a co-dominant species will have a phenotype that is a blend of both alleles, while the heterozygote in an incomplete dominant species will have a phenotype that is intermediate between the two homozygous phenotypes. 10. R Gr gR gr GR GGRR GGRr GgRR GgRr Gr GGRr GGrr GgRr Ggrr gR GgRR GgRr ggRR ggRr gr GgRr Ggrr ggRr ggrr Green, Round:2 Green, Long:Striped, Round:1 Striped, Long 11. 12. XH (Mother) Xh (Mother) Xh (Father) XHXh (Carrier Female) XhXh (Hemophilia Female) Y (Father) XHY (Normal Male) XhY (Hemophilia Male) a - If a child is born with hemophilia but neither of the parents have the condition. The mother is the first person in the family to carry hemophilia. 13) C (Father) c (Father) C (Mother) CC (Normal) Cc (Carrier) c (Mother) Cc (Carrier) cc (Cystic Fibrosis) Unit three: structure/organization of monomer units importance /role in human body --------------- ----------------------------------------- ------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Carbohydrates (CH2O)12 They help fuel your brain, kidneys, heart muscles and central nervous system. Proteins Amino acids To build and repair muscles and bones to make hormones and enzymes. Lipids Glycerol and fatty acids Helps what goes in and out of your cells. 2. **Mouth** - Entranceway for the food, the food forms into a moist ball like structure called bolus. **Salivary Glands -** Produces saliva which contains: water to moisten food, the enzyme amylase which chemically breaks down starch into disaccharide units, mucus to soften and lubricate food and finally bicarbonate ions which neutralize acidic food. **Esophagus** - The muscular tube that carries bolus from pharynx to stomach through muscle contraction called peristalsis. **Stomach** - J-shaped muscular organ that releases a hormone called gastrin. Which tells the cells in the stomach to release gastric juice which contains: hydrochloric acid, pepsin and mucus. When food is mixed with gastric juice it\'s called chyme. **Small Intestine** - Receives chyme from stomach and secretions from liver/pancreas. Triggers two hormones that control release of chemicals CCK and secretin. **Liver/Gallbladder -** Produces bile which is used to break down large lipid droplets into smaller droplets called micelles. Stores bile and contracts response to the presence of CCK to release the bile. **Pancreas** - Secretin triggers the pancreas to release bicarbonate ions which neutralize the pH of chyme so it doesn\'t damage the lining of the small intestine. **Large Intestine** - Composed of cecum, ascending colon, transverse and descending, sigmoid colon and rectum. Stores food waste, reabsorbs water, contains gut bacteria which produce B and K vitamins. **Rectum** - The last part of the small intestine which stores solid waste until a bowel movement. Contains stretch receptors that activate feces to void. 3. **Enzyme** **Where it is Produced** **Function in Digestion** ------------------- -------------------------- ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ Amylase Salivary glands Chemically breaks down starch into disaccharide units, Lipase Pancreas Continues starch breakdown Pepsin/Pepsinogen Stomach To digest proteins found in ingested food. Bile Liver Physically breaks down large lipid droplets into smaller droplets called micelles. CCK Liver and pancreas Stimulates gallbladder to release bile into the small intestine. Secretin Liver and pancreas Triggers pancreas to release bicarbonate ions which neutralize the pH of chyme. 4\.  **Blood capillaries** - Absorbs water soluble nutrients **Lacteal** - Carries a fluid called lymph that absorbs fats and fat soluble vitamins **Nutrient rich blood** - travels to the liver where nutrients are metabolized and blood is detoxified **Lymph vessel** - carries lymph, fats and vitamins to the subclavian vein where it enters the bloodstream 5) **Trachea** - carries air to and from the lungs, helps produce mucus to protect the lung Bronchi - branch from the trachea and additionally help bring air to and from the lungs Bronchioles - branch from the bronchi and bring air to the alveoli Alveoli - the site at which gas exchange occurs 5. 6. 7. **Inspiration**: Diaphragm contracts and moves down to increase space and decrease pressure in the thorax cavity allowing air to flow in Intercostals contract to lift the rib cage to help further increase space in thorax cavity **Expiration**: Diaphragm relaxes and moves up to decrease space and increase pressure in the thorax cavity pushing air out Intercostals relax to lower ribcage to help further decrease space in thorax cavity 8. **Single Circulation** - two chambered heart with a pumping and receiving chamber where blood passes through the heart once per cycle. This happens in arthropods and fish. ii) Double **Incomplete Circulation** - full mixing of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood as there is no septum between the 3 chambers. This happens in amphibians. **Double Complete Circulation** - three or four chambered heart with a septum where blood passes twice through the heart in one complete cycle. This happens in mammals. 9\. Function of septum in heart, how to determine type of circulation The septum is the wall of the heart that keeps the oxygenated and deoxygenated blood separate. If there is a septum, the oxygenated and deoxygenated blood of the heart are separate allowing for complete circulation. If there is no septum, the oxygenated and deoxygenated blood is mixed allowing for incomplete circulation. Complete circulation in mammals is necessary to allow for more oxygen to get to body cells as they have higher metabolism than amphibians. Amphibians are ectotherms with low metabolism and they carry out gas exchange in lungs and moist skins. 10.  11. **Vessels** **Function** **Lumen Size** **Wall Thickness** **Valves** **Permeability** ------------- -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ---------------------------------- ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Arteries Moves blood away from the heart, therefore high pressure narrow Thick/elastic as the wall expands with blood pulse then recoils to push blood along no no Veins Moves blood towards the heart to be reoxygenated Wider, as the more space and less friction allows for blood to flow more easily Thin Yes to prevent backflow of blood No Capillaries Move blood from arterioles to veins, used to allow nutrients and oxygen to cross into cell Very small, only one cell thick One cell thick No Yes, allows nutrients and oxygen (gas exchange) to move in and waste to move out Unit 4: evolution 1\. Natural selection is the way in which the environment favours the reproductive success of some individuals within a population over others. [The four driving forces] of natural selection are genetic variation, overproduction of offspring, struggle for existence, and survival and reproduction. \# 2\. **[The evolution of different dog breeds falls under artificial selection]**, this is because preferred traits are chosen by the breeders and these traits become common in future generations. 3\. **Harmful mutations tend to disappear in a population due to** reduced fitness, while beneficial mutations become more frequent as they provide advantages for survival and reproduction. An example is the evolution of antibiotic resistance in bacterial 4. [Lamarck\'s proposals of use and disuse and inheritance of acquired characteristics] do not align with modern genetics and evolution. The flaw in his ideas is that acquired traits during an organism\'s lifetime are not directly passed onto offspring, and genetic mutations and natural selection drive evolutionary change, not acquired characteristics. 5. George Curvies theory of Catastrophism - global catastrophes that caused the widespread extinction (floods, diseases, etc). His theory was flawed because it did not address why each layer included progressively more complex forms. 6. **Charles Lyell\'s theory of Uniformitarianism** - geological changes are slow and gradual, suggested that earth was billions of years old Charles Lyell said that the earth is extremely old because many thousands of years are needed for natural processes to build structures like mountains and or erode a gorge but erosion and other geological processes can result in these formations. 8. **Homologous Structure** - structures with a common evolutionary origin, and serve different functions in modern species Ex - similar bone structure but different external appearance due to function: flying vs grasping **Vestigial features** - structures that carry no known function, often similar to a fully functioning structure in a closely related species. Ex - hip bones in whales, short toe in dogs, pigs and horses **Fossil Record**-if evolution did not occur, Darwin would expect to find a great deal of evidence to falsify this like: fossils layered in no particular sequence, species with no vestigial features or homologous features. He found that the fossils in a particular region were often similar to present-day species living in the same region (fossils of giant sloths and armadillos were found in the same part of the world as modern day ones) **Geographic Distribution of Species**- The species Darwin found on the Galapagos Islands reminded him of species he had seen in South America. The flightless cormorant was unique as it was the only one that lost its ability to fly. It takes its food from diving along shorelines so it doesn\'t need to fly to survive. 9. **Selective pressures** are factors that affect an organism\'s ability to survive in a particular environment. ( The trunk of an elephant helps them reach for food and water while moving little, claws of lobster help them to crush large shells and other prey) They can result in different ways of natural selection (stabilizing, directional or disruptive selection. Stabilizing Selection-(peaks get narrower) favours an intermediate phenotype and against extreme variants (reduces variation) [e.g plant height- too short it can\'t compete with other plants for sunlight, too tall it can get wind damage, medium is selected so the plant can compete for sunlight and not experience wind damage] Directional Selection-(peak shifts) favours phenotype at one extreme over the other and results in distribution curve of phenotypes shifting that direction. [E.g. giraffe necks- short or medium necks selected against as could not reach as many leaves on which to feed- long neck selected and a shift to favour individuals] Disruptive Selection-(two peaks form) extremes of phenotype range are favoured relative to intermediate phenotypes- results in intermediate phenotypes being eliminated from the population [e.g. Coho Salmon with two male phenotypes- larger males defend territory and keep males away from eggs, small males gain access to female eggs by sneaking into a territory. Medium males are selected against] 10\. **Genetic Drift**- (evolutionary change in the absence of natural selection \*changes in the allele frequency as a result of chance- more common in small populations **The Bottleneck and Founder Effect**- population is sharply reduced in size and there is a significant loss of genetic variation and increase in genetic drift **Genetic Bottleneck-** a dramatic and often temporary reduction in population size- (natural disaster drastically reduces population) [e.g. Cheetahs are thought to have had a bottle neck effect about 10,000 years ago they were reduced to 7 individuals. All Cheetahs today come from these 7 individuals so very low genetic variation and have difficulty reproducing.] **Founder Effect-** when a small number of individuals establish a new population. [Amish communities are an example.] [They grow from few founders and have not recruited newcomers and marry within community Have phenomenon called polydactyly (extra fingers and toes)] Unit 5: Plants 1. **Chloroplasts** - organelles that contain pigment chlorophyll, capture sunlight to carry out photosynthesis. **Cell wall** - give plants strong, upright structure 2\. [Plants carry out photosynthesis] to capture and convert light energy into chemical energy (glucose). They produce glucose because glucose is used in cellular respiration ATP energy, glucose is used to build cellulose molecules which form the cell wall and other rigid structures, and excess glucose is used to build starch molecules that are stored in leaves, stems, roots and seeds. 3. [Roots] - absorbs water and dissolved nutrients, anchor plant into the ground -Help to prevent erosion, source of food [Stems] - Support plant: contains vascular tissue that transports materials throughout the plant -Allow for tall plant growth, source of food [Leaves] - The main organ of photosynthesis and function in gas exchange and transpiration -Protect the plant, source of food 4\. **VASCULAR TISSUES** Xylem - Transports water and dissolved nutrients upward from the roots Phloem - Transports food produced in the leaves to other parts of the plant  5. 6\. Two types of asexual reproduction **Vegetative Propagation** - roots, stems or leaves are cut and grown into new plants (replanted) **Grafting -** A plant part can be transferred/combined with another rooted plant. 7. 8\. The stamen produces the pollen/ eggs in a flower 9\. [2 ways pollination can occur in angiosperm ] Self-pollination occurs when pollen from a flower fertilizes the same flower or another flower on the same plant. Cross-pollination happens when pollen is transferred from one plant to another by wind, water, insects, or animals, increasing genetic diversity. 10\. **A pollen tube is a** hollow tube which develops a pollen grain when deposited on the stigma of a flower. **The purpose of its formation is to** deliver male gametes to a female gametophyte during double fertilization. 11\. After fertilization the ovary swells into a [fruit ] - - - 12\. 3 functions of seeds Food storage, tissue, and hardened protective covering (seed coat) 13\. Seed structure is linked to its dispersal method. Examples.. [maple tree] - shaped for wind dispersal [Apple tree] - animal digested fruit; egest seeds in feces [Burdock] - catches in animal fur