BIO 252 LECTURE EXAM 3 (1) PDF

Module 3.1 Introduction to Blood and Plasma Functions Of Blood 1) Blood Distributes Substances Across The Body a) Gasses b) Nutrients c) Wastes d) Ions ( Including ) Hydrogen e) Chemical Messengers f) Heat Distribution Of Pressure: Blood has “...

Module 3.1 Introduction to Blood and Plasma Functions Of Blood 1) Blood Distributes Substances Across The Body a) Gasses b) Nutrients c) Wastes d) Ions ( Including ) Hydrogen e) Chemical Messengers f) Heat Distribution Of Pressure: Blood has “Hydrostatic Pressure” that changed along its course. The difference in pressures at any two points accounts for the movement of blood All transportation functions depend on the blood moving Components Of Blood - Blood is a Connective Tissue - Cellular: Formed Elements - Extracellular: Plasma - Centrifugation Separates Blood According to Density What is Blood? Plasma Formed Elements - Leukocytes - Erythrocytes - Platelets Centrifugation Separates Blood According To Density - Plasma - Buffy Coat = Platelets, Leukocytes - Erythrocytes The Blood Plasma Serum: Water Electrolytes Hormones Gasses Nutrients & Wastes Proteins: Albumen Globulins Transport proteins Fibrinogen Questions Responses: The main Purpose Of The Capillaries In The Circulatory System: is for substance exchange. Blood Moves Through The Circulatory System: by pressure differences The Clinical Term For The Percentage Of Red Blood Cells In The Blood Volume: is Hematocrit Function Of Serum In Blood is Nutrient And Waste Transport Which of the following is NOT one of the plasma proteins? a) Albumin b) Globulin c) Fibrinogen d) Collagen What happens to fibrinogen during blood clotting? a) It becomes soluble b) It turns into globulin c) It becomes insoluble fibrin d) It transforms into serum Which type of tissue is blood classified as? a) Epithelial tissue b) Nervous tissue c) Muscle tissue d) Connective tissue What is the main method used to separate the elements of blood for analysis? a) Osmosis b) Centrifugation c) Filtration d) Diffusion Module 3.2 Formed Elements of Blood Erythrocytes: Red Blood Cells Hemoglobin: 2 alpha peptide 2 Beta Peptide Chain Variations: Oxyhemoglobin Deoxyhemoglobin Carbaminohemoglobin Hematopoiesis ( Blood Cell Formation ) Red Bone Marrow Contains Hematopoietic Stem Cells Yellow Bone Marrow Contains Primarily Adipose Tissue Leukocytes ( White Blood Cells ) 1) Granulocytes a) Neutrophils b) Eosinophil c) Basophil 2) Agranulocytes What is the shape of red blood cells? a) Spherical b) Cuboidal c) Disc-like d) Triangular Answer What is the main protein found in red blood cells? a) Collagen b) Hemoglobin c) Fibrinogen d) Albumin Answer Which type of blood cells are responsible for engulfing bacteria and other substances? a) Neutrophils b) Basophils c) Eosinophils d) Lymphocytes Answer Which white blood cells are involved in responding to parasitic worm infections and allergies? a) Neutrophils b) Basophils  c) Eosinophils d) Monocytes Answer Which organ is responsible for detecting weakened red blood cells and breaking them down? a) Liver b) Spleen c) Kidneys d) Pancreas Answer What substance is produced when hemoglobin breaks down and is excreted from the body? a) Bilirubin b) Heme c) Iron d) Hemoglobin Answer Which type of white blood can produce antibodies? a) Lymphocytes b) Neutrophils c) Basophils d) Monocytes Answer Platelets are essential for what process in the blood? a) Oxygen transport b) Blood clotting c) White blood cell production d) Red blood cell formation Answer What is the precursor cell for platelets? a) Erythrocyte b) Megakaryocyte c) Monocyte d) Lymphocyte Answer Which cells release granules containing toxic substances to combat infectious bacteria? a) Neutrophils b) Lymphocytes c) Basophils d) Eosinophils Answer What is the function of erythropoietin (EPO)? a) Enhance blood clotting b) Stimulate red blood cell production c) Trigger white blood cell response d) Regulate plasma proteins Answer What is the lifespan of a typical red blood cell? a) 60 days b) 90 days c) 120 days d) 180 days Answer What is the primary role of platelets in the blood? a) Oxygen transport b) Immune response c) Blood clot formation d) Nutrient absorption Lecture 12 From superficial to deep, what are the 3 pericardial layers, and what is the function of each? - Fibrous Pericardium - Parietal Pericardium - Visceral Pericardium Explain what neurons innervate the heart, what neurotransmitters are released, what cells of the heart are affected, and how they are affected. - Visceral motor (autonomic) neurons innervate the heart. - Postganglionic sympathetic neurons release NE and postganglionic parasympathetic neurons relate ACh - These neurotransmitters have metabotropic receptors on pacemaker cells of the heart. - The effects of NE and ACh are to speed up and slow down the pacemaker potential, resulting in a faster or slower heart rate. 3. Assuming the usual complement of Na+/K+ ATPase pumps and K⁺ and Na⁺ leak channels, what other pumps or channels would you expect to find in the membranes of pacemaker cells? - They have 'funny channels' that open when the cell is polarized. - These cells also have voltage gated Ca²⁺ channels that take the role otherwise occupied by voltage gated Na⁺ channels in producing the depolarization phase of an action potential. 4. What is the sequence of events in a contractile cardiac cell that begins an action potential in an adjacent cell to the contraction of the cell? An adjacent cell has an action potential. Through gap junctions at the intercalated disc, the depolarization in one cell (conduction system cell or another contractile cell) results in a depolarization in the neighboring cell The depolarization triggers the opening of a voltage gated Na⁺ channel in our contractile cell (this depolarization propagates throughout the cell) Cells Begin: The voltage gated K⁺ channels open, and the cell begins to repolarize  The voltage gated Ca²⁺ channels open while the K⁺ channels are also open. The cell membrane is in plateau phase. With Ca²⁺ entering the cell, Ca²⁺triggers the release of Ca²⁺ from the SR; both sources of Ca²⁺contribute to the high cytosolic Ca²⁺ level Ca²⁺ binds to troponin and contraction begins Ca²⁺channels eventually close, leaving only the K⁺ channels open; the cell completes repolarization Lecture 13 Contraction In Cardiac Muscle 1. What is the relationship Between The Plateau Phase and Systole? * Plateau Phase * Calcium 2. What does the electrocardiogram depict? - Through the skin, the EKG depicts depolarizations and depolarizations as they spread across the heart. 3. Why can't plateau or SA node action potentials be seen on EKG? - The magnitude of change from the beginning to the end of the plateau is too subtle to register on EKG.  - The action potentials of SA node cells are substantial, but they are occurring in too small a population of cells to show on the EKG. 4. What changes are occurring in the heart during the isovolumetric contraction phase? - The ventricles enter systole with a very low blood pressure within. - Upon contraction, the blood pressure is elevated past that of the atria and blood attempts to move out to the atria; this closes the atrioventricular valves (S1 heart sound). - Ventricular blood pressure continues rising. - Once ventricular blood pressure exceeds aortic pressure (about 80 mmHg), this phase is over and ventricular ejection begins. 5. What determines when the ventricular filling phase moves from passive to active stages? - The firing of the SA node. The SA node action potential spreads to the atria, and doing plateau the atria will be in systole (the active stage of ventricular filling) 6. What stage(s) of the cardiac cycle occurs during the segment between QRS and T waves? - Isovolumetric contraction & ventricular ejection. - Because this period of time corresponds to ventricular plateau, and plateau corresponds approximately to contraction, this period of time is ventricular systole (isovolumetric contraction & ventricular ejection phases). 6. What stage(s) of the cardiac cycle occurs during the segment between P and QRS waves? - Active stage of ventricular filling. - Because this period of time corresponds to atrial plateau, and plateau corresponds approximately to contraction, this period of time is atrial systole. 7. What stage(s) of the cardiac cycle occurs during the segment between T and P waves? - Isovolumetric relaxation & ventricular filling (passive stage). - Because the T wave corresponds to ventricular repolarization, contraction will end, and the ventricles enter diastole. - The first part of this is isovolumetric relaxation. - Continuing in time, the passive stage of ventricular filling occurs. - The P-wave marks the onset of atrial systole (active stage of ventricular filling), so the T-P segment ends before then. Lecture 14 1. What are the structural differences between arteries and veins?  - Each has the same 3 layers, although arteries have more muscle for their size and are more elastic (less compliant). - Veins can be larger in diameter than arteries and may have valves. 2. What is "total cross sectional area" as it applies to blood vessels, and what is the significance of total cross sectional area? 3. How is flow different from velocity? - Blood flow is a measure of volume per minute. Velocity is a measure of distance per minute. - The same volume flows through the aorta as flows through the capillaries (5 liters per minute), but the velocity is very different. 4. Identify the 4 major factors that contribute to blood pressure. Flow into the vessels (Cardiac output): this is the volume of blood per minute that enters the vessels; the greater the flow, the greater the pressure Resistance: this is the sum of factors that oppose flow out of the vessels; the greater the resistance, the greater the pressure Blood volume: this is the volume of blood that occupies the vessels; the greater the volume, the greater the pressure Compliance: this is the stretchiness of the vessels; the greater the compliance, the lower the pressure Lecture 15 1. What explains the reason that blood pressure declines with distance from the heart? Resistance decreases along the length of the vessels. Why? The length between any point and the end of the system (vena cava) is shorter as blood moves along the circulatory system. Thus the total length of blood vessels (major contributor to resistance) is decreasing from aorta to veins. The largest drop in pressure occurs past the arterioles. This is because arterioles are often the smallest diameter vessels, particularly when constricted, Once past, blood encounters substantially less resistance. 2. Why do we bother regulating our blood pressure? Blood pressure drives fluid movement across capillary walls (filtration). The movement of this O₂ and nutrient-containing fluid complements diffusion in delivering substances to the tissues. Maintenance of a sufficient flow of blood to capillaries ensures sufficient nutrient delivery to capillaries (and opportunity for waste removal as well). 3. What are the targets of sympathetic and parasympathetic regulation of blood pressure? SA node cells: Cardiac output (through HR adjustment) is changed by the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems. Contractile cells of the heart: Cardiac output (through SV adjustment) is changed by the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems. Arterioles: peripheral resistance (through vasoconstriction/dilation) is adjusted by the sympathetic nervous system. The parasympathetic nervous system does not affect blood vessels, although the central regulation inhibits sympathetic stimulation. 4. During the valsalva maneuver, increasing intrathoracic pressure diminishes blood flow to the heart. Why? The pressure in the veins entering the atria are very low in pressure (a force of 5 mm Hg or less pushes against the walls). It takes very little external pressure to force these veins closed, limiting blood flow to the heart. Lecture 16: 1. Interaction of Antigens with Lymphatic Capillaries When an antigen enters lymphatic capillaries, it can interact with: Macrophages: These cells can engulf the antigen and present it on their surface using MHC class II molecules. This helps activate naive or memory helper T cells, starting an immune response. B Cells: B cells can also bind to the antigen with their B cell receptors. After internalizing it, they present the antigen on MHC class II molecules. If a helper T cell recognizes this, it activates the B cell, leading to the production of memory B cells and plasma cells. Plasma cells produce antibodies that help neutralize the pathogen. 2. Effects of Inflammatory Mediators Inflammatory mediators cause several effects:  Blood Vessel Dilation: This increases blood flow to the area, bringing more white blood cells (WBCs) to fight infection. Increased Capillary Permeability: This allows WBCs and chemical signals to move more easily into the tissue, causing swelling. Pain Sensitization: They can make the area more painful by affecting nerve endings. Recruitment of Immune Cells: They stimulate the production of more WBCs in the bone marrow and attract neutrophils and monocytes to the inflamed area. 3. Immune Response to Viral Antigens If a virus infects a cell, the immune system responds by: MHC Class I Presentation: The infected cell shows viral antigens on MHC class I molecules, which cytotoxic T cells recognize. Activation of Cytotoxic T Cells: If a cytotoxic T cell recognizes the antigen, it becomes activated and divides into effector and memory T cells. Helper T Cell Support: Active helper T cells can produce interleukin 2 (IL-2) to further stimulate cytotoxic T cells. Targeting Infected Cells: Activated cytotoxic T cells kill the infected cells using proteins that induce cell death. Lecture 18: 1. What is the purpose of the intra pleural space? Why not just have the lungs connected to the thoracic wall directly? Possible Answer The pleural membranes with the enclosed intrapleural space/fluid allow the lungs to enlarge and glide against the thoracic wall with minimal friction. The intrapleural space, because it cannot enlarge, holds the lung very closes to the thoracic wall. As the thoracic wall increases its volume, the lungs are drawn open to the same volume. 2. If the compliance of the lungs were to decrease, as with age or disease, the lungs would resist enlargement when the thorax enlarges. How can this limitation be overcome if a person requires 500 ml per breath at rest? Possible Answer With low compliance, a normal breath will not stretch the lungs open sufficiently. People with low compliance will have to expend more muscular effort to ventilate 500 ml compared to a normal person. 3. During a fight or flight scenario, the nervous system enhances muscular effort. However, the airways also dilate to facilitate air movement. How does bronchodilator affect flow of air, and how does the body make this happen in a fight or flight scenario? Possible Answer Bronchodilation reduces airway resistance. Reduced resistance increases the flow of air. In a fight or flight scenario, the hormone epinephrine from the adrenal medulla arrives and stimulates the smooth muscle forming the wall of the airways. The result of epinephrine stimulation is the relaxation (reduction) of smooth muscle contraction. Lymphatic System Lecture 16 1. Lymphatic Capillary Structure & Function: ○ A portion of fluid leaks from blood vessels, forming interstitial fluid. ○ Lymphatic capillaries absorb excess interstitial fluid, becoming lymph. ○ They also absorb dietary fats in the small intestine (lacteals). 2. Lymphatic Vessels & Nodes: ○ Afferent vessels bring lymph into lymph nodes; efferent vessels carry it out. ○ Lymph nodes filter lymph with immune cells (B-cells, T-cells, and macrophages). ○ Other organs, like the spleen, tonsils, and MALT, conduct immune surveillance in blood and the digestive tract. ○ Thymus is where T-cells mature. Immune System 1. Three Lines of Defense: ○ Surface barriers like skin and mucous membranes prevent pathogen entry. ○ Innate immunity (non-specific) identifies a range of pathogens using antimicrobial proteins and cells like WBCs. ○ Adaptive immunity (specific) targets specific antigens using cell-mediated (T-cells) and antibody-mediated immunity (B-cells). 2. Cells of the Innate Immune System: ○ Monocytes/macrophages: perform phagocytosis, destroy pathogens, and act as antigen-presenting cells (APCs).  ○ Neutrophils, eosinophils: phagocytic and produce reactive substances to kill bacteria and worms. ○ Dendritic cells: phagocytic APCs. ○ Basophils and mast cells: signal and trigger inflammation. ○ NK cells: target and destroy infected or cancerous cells. 3. Antimicrobial Proteins: ○ Complement proteins: assist immune responses by enhancing phagocytosis and inflammation. ○ Cytokines (like TNF, interleukins, interferons): signal among immune cells to activate, recruit, and coordinate responses. 4. Inflammatory Response: ○ A crucial process triggered by infection or injury that includes increased blood flow, immune cell recruitment, and localized swelling.