Bio 11 Exam Review PDF

Genetics and Inheritance Lesson 1: Cells and the Cell Cycle Definitions ​ Cell: The basic unit of all organisms ​ Genetics: The study of how genetic information is passed from generations (Study of Heredity) General Info: Cell Theory: ​ Cells are the basic structural unit of life...

Genetics and Inheritance Lesson 1: Cells and the Cell Cycle Definitions ​ Cell: The basic unit of all organisms ​ Genetics: The study of how genetic information is passed from generations (Study of Heredity) General Info: Cell Theory: ​ Cells are the basic structural unit of life ​ All cells come from preexisting cells ​ All organisms are composed of one or more cells Cell Cycle: The cell cycle is how cells reproduce and grow. It has three stages: Interphase, Mitosis, and Cytokinesis. All somatic(body) cells go through this process. Interphase: Interphase is when the cell grows and duplicates its DNA and organelles. It also consists of 3 stages: Growth 1(G1), Synthesis, and Growth 2(G). ​ G1: Major growth and prep for DNA replication ​ Synthesis: DNA in the form of chromatin is duplicated ​ G2: More growth in preparation for mitosis Mitosis: Produces 2 daughter cells from one parent cell that are genetically identical. It has 4 stages: Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, and Telophase. ​ Prophase: Chromatin condenses into chromosomes, consisting of 2 genetically identical Sister Chromatids, held together by a Centromere. Nuclear membrane also disintegrates, and spindle fibers are created. Centrosomes also move to opposite poles. ​ Metaphase: Spindle fibers attach to centromeres, and bring chromosomes to line up along the equator. ​ Anaphase: Each centromere splits, separating the 2 chromatids, which makes each one a separate chromosome. They are pulled toward each centrosome. ​ Telophase: Chromosomes unwind back into chromatin, spindle fibers dissolve, and nuclear envelope reforms. Cytokinesis: Division of cytoplasm, and rest of organelles. Animal cells pinch inward until a gap is formed. The gap itself is called the Cleavage Furrow. Plant cells form a wall in the middle of their cytoplasm that separates the organelles and nucleus called the Cell Plate. The plant cell then builds to cell walls around the plate, and dissolves, which separates the cells. Lesson 2: The Structure of Genetic Material Definitions ​ DNA: DeoxyriboNucleic Acid, contains all genetic info in a cell ​ Nucleotide: One piece of a strand of DNA, consisting of a phosphate, deoxyribose sugar, and nitrogenous base. ​ Genome: The complete DNA sequence of every cell of an organism ​ Genetic Mutations: Change in the sequence of DNA ​ Autosomes: Any chromosome that is not the sex chromosome ​ Karyotyping: Study of a person chromosomes ​ Gene: A part of a chromosome that stores specific genetic information via Alleles ​ Alleles: Information in genes that determine traits of the organism ​ Homologous: Used to describe 2 chromosomes that have the same genes, but not necessarily the same Alleles. General Info: History of DNA: Rosalind Franklin isolated and identified DNA structure, and James Watson/Francis Crick built DNA model, in 1950-60’s Hierarchical Structure of Chromosomes ​ DNA Double helix ​ Coils with Histones to make Nucleosomes, resembling a bead in appearance ​ Coils further to make Chromatin Fiber (30 nm) ​ Coils further to make Supercoiled Fiber ​ Colis even further during mitosis to make Metaphase Chromosomes Structure of DNA ​ A phosphate, deoxyribose sugar, and nitrogenous base combine to form one nucleotide, which then combine to construct a strand of DNA. ​ Backbone (sides) of helix is made from phosphate and sugar ​ There are four types of nitrogenous bases:​ ○​ Adenine(A) ○​ Thymine(T) ○​ Guanine(G) ○​ Cytosine(C)  ​ Adenine will only bond with Thymine, and have 2 hydrogen bonds, and Guanine will only bond with Cytosine and have 3 hydrogen bonds. ​ Adenine and Guanine are Purine, meaning they have 2 rings in their atomic structure ​ Thymine and Cytosine are Pyrimidines, meaning they only have one ring in their atomic structure. Chromosome Numbers: Number of chromosomes in an organism is not related to the complexity of the creature, ​ EX. Humans have 46 chromosomes(23 pairs), while amoebas have 54 chromosomes(27 pairs) Sex Chromosomes: The sex chromosomes in humans are the 23rd set of chromosomes. They can either both be X chromosomes(XX=Female), or one X and one Y(XY=Male) Lesson 3: Sexual Reproduction and Meiosis Definitions ​ Asexual Reproduction: Reproduction that involves one parent, and produces 2 daughter cells identical to the parent cell. ​ Sexual Production: Reproduction that involves 2 parents, and creates a varying amount of offspring, all similar to both parents, but not identical to either. ​ Gametes: A cell that contains half of the genetic information needed to reproduce. Usually combines with another gamete to produce a zygote. ​ Zygote: Product of sexual reproduction, and is a combination of a male and female gamete. ​ Haploid: Used to describe a cell containing half of the required chromosomes needed to duplicate. The number of chromosomes in a haploid cell is represented by the variable n (n=23 in humans). ​ Diploid: Used to describe a cell containing enough chromosomes to duplicate. The number of chromosomes in a diploid cell is represented by the variable 2n (2n=46 in humans). ​ Fertilization: The process of 2 gametes fusing to create a zygote. General Info: Meiosis: ​ There are 2 outcomes of meiosis: ○​ Genetic Reduction: Reducing the number of chromosomes in the cell ○​ Genetic Recombination: Creating genetically unique gametes via several processes.  ​ In Meiosis, the stages from mitosis happen twice, with a few subtle differences: ○​ During Prophase 1, the homologous chromosomes gather in pairs, and perform a process called Synapsis(Crossing over), where they will exchange some genes. ○​ Halfway through Meiosis, there are 2 haploid cells, each containing 23 double stranded chromosomes. ○​ During Metaphase 1, the pairs of chromosomes line up randomly along the equator, meaning the parental and maternal chromosomes can go to either resulting cell. This process is called Independent assortment. ○​ By the end of meiosis, there are 4 haploid gametes, each containing 23 single stranded chromosomes. Lesson 4: Gamete Formation and Errors in Meiosis Definitions: Spermatogenesis: The production of sperm via meiosis in males. Starts with one Spermatogonia, which performs mitosis, and then becomes a Primary Spermatocyte. After the first set of meiosis, 2 Secondary Spermatocytes are produced, which then finish mitosis and become Spermatids, which later become sperm. Oogenesis: The production of ova(eggs) via meiosis in females. Follows the same process as Spermatogenesis(names of stages are the same except replace sperm with OO), except only one gamete is produced, and all other cells become polar bodies, and disintegrate. General Info Mutations During meiosis, there are 2 primary errors that can occur. A change in chromosome number, or a change in chromosome structure. Changes in Chromosome Structure: During Synapsis, chemical bonds in the chromosomes break, and may not reform properly, leading to 4 errors. ​ Deletion: A piece of the chromosome is deleted. ○​ Can cause Cri du Chat (a genetic disorder) ​ Duplication: A section of chromosome is replicated ○​ Can cause Charcot Marie Tooth Disease. ​ Inversion: The order of a piece of a chromosome is flipped ○​ Can cause FG syndrome ​ Translocation: A segment of a chromosome gets attached to a different chromosome ○​ Can cause Chronic Myelogenous Leukemia(CML) Changes in Chromosome Number During Anaphase 1, the centromere may not split properly, which leads to the wrong amount of chromosomes in a cell, and is called nondisjunction. Some common errors are: ​ Trisomy 21: Having an extra 21st chromosome. Results in Down syndrome ​ Trisomy 18: Having an extra 18th chromosome. Results in Edwards syndrome. ​ Trisomy 13: Having an extra 13th chromosome. Results in Patau Syndrome ​ XXY: Having an extra X chromosome, or Y chromosome(Depending on gender). Results in Klinefelter Syndrome. Lesson 5: Introduction to Inheritance Definitions ​ True Breeding Plant: A plant that consistently passes on its traits through generations consistently ​ Monohybrid Cross: A genetic cross that examines one trait ​ Law of Segregation: States that one gamete can only carry one of each type of allele. ​ Dominant: Alleles that will be expressed over recessive Alleles In homozygous dominant genotypes, and heterozygous genotypes ​ Recessive: Alleles that cannot be expressed while a dominant allele is present. ​ Homozygous: When 2 of the same alleles are present in a gene ​ Heterozygous: When 2 different alleles are present in a gene. ​ Genotype: The alleles present inside a gene ​ Phenotype: The alleles that are expressed. General Info ​ Gregor Mendel developed the idea of mendelian genetics by breeding pea plants, a choice that was pure luck Monohybrid Cross A monohybrid cross examines one trait, and examines how that trait is passed through generations. It starts with the P(Parental) Generation, which will have you initial plants. The resulting offspring are referred to as the F1(First Filial) generation. If needed, the F1 generation will be bred again to form an F2(Second Filial) generation. Dihybrid Cross A cross that examines 2 traits, and follows the same processes as a monohybrid cross. Lesson 6: Codominance and Incomplete Dominance General Information Codominance When 2 alleles are expressed alongside each other, usually in a pattern of some sort. Occurs when 2 equally dominant alleles are present. EX. A red and white spotted cow, from a red cow and a white cow. Incomplete Dominance When 2 alleles are expressed and create a new phenotype which is a blend of the other 2 possible phenotypes. Also occurs when 2 equally dominant alleles are present. EX. a pink flower from a red flower and a white flower. Lesson 7: Multiple Alleles and Sex-Linked Inheritance General Info Hierarchy When there are more than 2 possible alleles, the alleles usually have a hierarchy of dominance, where certain traits will be more dominant than others. The most dominant trait is called the Wild Type. Human Blood Types All human blood alleles are represented by an I, and the hierarchy of dominance is A and B are equally dominant, with O being less dominant than both. If both A and B are present, then the subject will be AB blood type. Sex Linked Inheritance Some traits are linked to the x chromosome, which means that Males are more likely to express the trait than Females. Some examples are Colour vision, Blood clotting, and Pattern Baldness. MALES: (Xb Y) BALD | (XB Y) NOT BALD FEMALES: (Xb Xb) BALD | (XB Xb) NOT BALD | (XB XB) NOT BALD Lesson 8: Patterns of Inheritance Definitions ​ Pedigree: A chart that shows a family tree, and examines one trait. ​ Example of Pedigree symbols -> ​ Pedigree Hints* ​ If trait skips then autosomal recessive  Evolution Feel Free to add and suggest changes, as the study guide may not be perfect. Lesson 1: Adaptation and Variation Definitions ​ Adaptation: A structural, physiological, or behavioural change that allows for a creature to survive and reproduce more effectively. ​ Structural: An external change that physically changes the creature visibly EX. Mimicry ​ Physiological: A change or optimization of an internal body function/process. Ex. Hibernation. ​ Behavioural: A change in a creature's behaviour EX. hunting patterns ​ Variation: A small change from a mutation in a species that eventually accumulates to become an adaptation. General Info: Goal of Adaptations Adaptation occurs when an environmental factor threatens a population. Some individuals may have a trait that allows them to survive more effectively, allowing them to reproduce more than another creature with a shorter lifespan. Adaptations Expanded ​ Not all variations become adaptations, only variations that provide a Selective advantage(greater chance of survival), tend to become adaptations. ​ Human impact can alter which adaptations are beneficial. Lesson 2: Natural and Artificial Selection Definitions: ​ Natural Selection: A process that results in characteristics of an organism to change over many generations due to some individuals being better suited to the environment. For Natural selection to occur, there Must be diversity present. ​ Environmental Factors: A factor that may limit the population of a species ,and favor certain traits over others. Can be biotic or abiotic. ​ Selective Pressure: Pressure applied by an environmental factor that favors certain traits in a population over others. ​ Abiotic: A non-living environmental factor ​ Biotic; A living environmental factor ​ Fitness: Ability of an organism to reproduce and pass on alleles to the next generation.  ​ Artificial Selection: Similar to natural selection, except selective pressure comes from human factors. Lesson 3: Theories of Evolution Timeline General Info: Creationism Theory–1000 BCE States that everything was created by a god or force of some sort, and hasn’t been altered since/is incapable of being altered. Carl Linneo– 1750s ​ Classified plants and animals from most to least complex ​ Gave basis of theories of evolution Georges Cuvier–1769–1831 ​ Developed Paleontology ​ Found that fossils changed over time(differences between species in different stratums), meaning creatures must change over time. ​ Proved a species could be extinct ​ Catastrophism– Major events would destroy a species, and another species would repopulate to come fill the niche. Charles Lyell– 1797–1875 ​ Not a biologist, and instead studied geography ​ Uniformitarianism–Changes happen slowly over long periods of time instead of all at once. ​ Inspired other scientists to explore this concept with species in not just geography. Jean-Baptiste Lamarck–1800s ​ Viewed inheritance as acquired characteristics ​ Assumed that species would increase in complexity until perfection was achieved EX. Giraffe’s neck. ​ Use and Disuse-Heavily used body parts get larger and more prominent, while unused body parts will fade into obscurity. Charles Darwin–1809–1882 ​ Came up with the idea of natural selection/survival of the fittest ​ Believed all life descended from some unknown common ancestor ​ Those that can survive and reproduce are the most fit ​ Nature is the main cause of evolution Neo Darwinism–1920-1950  ​ Integration of Darwin’s theories of evolution with Gregor Medel’s theories of genetics. ​ What is currently believed today Lesson 4: Evidence of Evolution Definitions: ​ Fossil Record: How organisms changed over time documented via fossils ​ Embryology: The study of embryos(fetuses) and how it links to medicine and biology ​ Comparative Anatomy: Comparing structures and animals to identify similarities and try to identify a common ancestor. ​ Homologous: 2 traits that come from a common ancestor(Ex four legs on mammals), but don’t necessarily have the same function, EX the forearm of many mammals and land creatures. ​ Analogous: Similar structures with a similar function but no common ancestor. (EX bird wings and bee wings) ​ Vestigial: A structure that had a purpose in the past, but is not useless or even detrimental to the creature. ​ Molecular Biology: Study of macromolecules essential to life for a variety of reasons. General Info: Evidence of Evolution: To prove evolution does actually take place, and to study how it has affected creatures, we look at a variety of methods. ​ Fossil records examine the bones of creatures over time, to see how that creature may have advanced/changed. ​ Embryology looks at the embryos or fetuses of creatures to try and find similarities that may point to a common ancestor. ​ Comparture anatomy looks at body parts of organisms to try and find similarities, that once again, may indicate a common ancestor. ​ Molecular biology examines amino acids to try and find similarities between creatures. This is done by examining a genotype, and seeing the number of differences. More differences means less shared ancestry. Lesson 5: Mechanisms of Evolution Definitions: ​ Gene Flow: When 2 different populations interbreed, creating variations in both gene pools ​ Non-Random Mating: Creatures selecting mates based on non-random factors EX preferred phenotypes, Avoiding inbreeding, and other methods. Leads to more homozygous individuals in the population  ​ Genetic Drift: A random change in allele frequencies usually due to a change in population. ​ Microevolution: the frequency change of alleles due to one of 5 factors(mutation, natural selection, and the above 3) ​ Sexual Dimorphism: Differences due to gender of the same species General Info: Genetic Drift Continued Genetic drift usually occurs due to one of the following events lowering available population significantly. ​ The founder effect: Where one or a small group of individuals split off from a larger population, which lowers allele diversity ​ The Bottleneck Effect: Where a catastrophic event of some kind lowers the population dramatically, also reducing allele frequencies. Types of Natural Selection: There are several types of natural selection: ​ Stabilizing selection: When a selective pressure favors a common phenotype, which leads to more individuals of the following generation having that phenotype. ​ Directional Selection: When a selective pressure favors a more uncommon phenotype, which tends to increase the number of individuals who have this uncommon phenotype. ​ Disruptive Selection: When both rare extremes of a phenotype are preferred, which greatly reduces the number of individuals who have an intermediate phenotype. ​ Sexual Selection: Selection via competition of males and selection by females. Lesson 6: Speciation Definitions: ​ Species: Population whose members can interbreed and produce viable and fertile offspring. ​ Speciation: Environmental factors changing a population to the point it doesn’t meet the above criteria, creating a new species. This is typically caused by reproductive isolation(not being able to reproduce with prior species). ​ Macroevolution: A substantial change in evolution. General Info: Prezygotic Isolating Mechanisms: Isolating mechanism that prevents an offspring from being produced before fertilization. Some examples are: ​ Behavioral Isolating Mechanisms: Any special signals/behaviors that are species specific EX bird songs and pheromones  ​ Habitat Isolating Mechanisms: Species that live in the same region, but different habitats. EX common garter snake living near water, and northwest garter snake living in open fields. ​ Temporal Isolating Mechanisms: A time barrier of some sort preventing mating. EX. Flowers blooming on different days. ​ Mechanical Isolating Mechanisms: May attempt to mate, but are unable due to anatomical differences ​ Gametic Isolating Mechanisms: Gametes being prevented from meeting after mating Postzygotic Isolating Mechanisms: Isolating mechanisms that happen after fertilization that prevent the formation of a new species. Some examples are: ​ Hybrid Inviability: Zygote forms, but is unable to develop due to differences being too great. ​ Hybrid Sterility: Offspring is viable and develops, but is unable to give birth to its own offspring. ​ Hybrid Breakdown: First generation of hybrids viable, but next generation becomes weak and infertile. Types of Speciation Different ways a new species may form. Include: ​ Sympatric Speciation: Inhabit the same area, but are reproductively isolated(unable to mate with each other). Common is self pollinating plants. ​ Allopatric Speciation: Caused by a geographical barrier creating a split in the population, which means each will evolve based on independent selective pressures. This is more likely in smaller populations. ○​ Also important to note that individuals living on edge of population may already slightly differ in allele frequency, leading to a more dramatic difference when and if a split happens ​ Adaptive Radiation: Diversification of a species from one common ancestor, sometimes to fill different ecological niches, EX Darwin’s Finches. Types of Evolution Generally species will evolve in three different patterns: ​ Divergent: Where species will split into 2 new species due to differences in alleles, with both being beneficial, leading to the 2 species becoming more and more distinct. ​ Parallel: Where almost all individuals of one species evolve into another species, usually to deal with a selective pressure. ​ Convergent: Where 2 different species start to become very similar due to a common selective pressure affecting both of them. It’s important to note that individuals do not evolve, only populations do. 2 Theories of How Evolution Work There are 2 different beliefs of how evolution works ​ Gradualism: Older belief where 2 species slowly become more and more unique until they can no longer interbreed, creating 2 new species. ​ Punctual Equilibrium: Long periods of stasis(no change) become interrupted by periods of divergence, where it is said the populations change the most. Humans and Speciation Humans cause allopatric speciation by building infrastructure, flooding lands, relocating individuals, and generally just interacting and modifying ecosystems.  Biodiversity Study Guide Lesson 1: Identifying, Naming, and Classifying Species Definitions ​ Biodiversity: Wide range of living organisms that are vital to the sustainability of ecosystems ​ Taxonomy: Branch of biology that deals with the naming and classification of organisms. Pioneered by Carl Linneo General Info The Three Species Concepts: Scientists use three concepts to define and classify species: ​ Morphological Species Concepts: Classifies by comparing physical characteristics of species. Advantages are that it's widely used and easy to use, but the disadvantages are that it's subjective, and has trouble clearly defining a species. ​ Biological Species Concept: Classifies by testing if members of a species can interbreed with each other. Advantages are once again that it’s widely used, and the disadvantages are that it isn’t applicable in all cases, whether because of physical separation, asexual reproducing species, or species being extinct. ​ Phylogenetic Species Concept: Classfies by examining the evolutionary history of species, and trying to find similarities like vestigial structures and common ancestors. Advantages are that it can be applied to extinct species by examining DNA, but the disadvantage is that not all species have a known evolutionary history. Binomial Nomenclature Each species has a 2 part name, the first part being the genus name, which is capitalized and italicized, and the second part being the scientific name, which is not capitalized, but is italicized. Classification system of Species There are 7 ranks that are used to classify species. Each species falls into one of the taxons that belong to each specific rank. The ranks from most diverse to least diverse are: Domain, Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species, Subspecies(not always included). Lesson 2: Determining How Species are Related General Info Evolutionary history The more recent a common ancestor that 2 species share, the more closely related they are. When examining a phylogenetic tree, the less splits species have in between each other, the more closely related they are. Evidence used by Scientists Scientists use several sources of evidence to determine how closely related species are. Some sources of evidence are: ​ Anatomical Evidence: The structure of a creature or parts of a creature. EX the similar forelimb of many vertebrae tells us they shared a common ancestor at one point. ​ Physiological Evidence: The enzymes/proteins present in a creature. The genetic makeup of an organism doesn’t change over time, therefore by examining the genetic makeup, we can find similarities between creatures. ​ DNA Evidence: The sequence present inside chromosomes(nucleotide sequence). If species are similar, their nucleotide sequences are going to be fairly similar. Phylogenetic Trees A diagram that compiles all evidence of evolutionary history that we have, and displays it in an understandable manner. The Base of the tree is the oldest known common ancestor, and each Fork in the tree is a place where the original species differentiated(acquired a new trait), and became a new species. Lesson 3: Kingdoms and Domains Definitions ​ Prokaryotic: Simple cells that don't have any membrane bound organelles. ​ Eukaryotic: More complicated larger cells that do have membrane bound organelles. ​ Unicellular and Multicellular: Organisms containing one cell and more than one cell respectively. ​ Dichotomous Keys: A tool used to help identify an unknown organism. General Info The Six Kingdoms The six kingdoms that all organisms can be classified into are: Animal, Plant, Fungi, Protist, Bacteria, and Archaea Three domains When Scientists were studying Bacteria and Archaea, they found the 2 kingdoms were so different, they needed to be further classified into different domains. This created three domains, Bacteria(consisting of bacteria), Archaea(consisting of archaea), and Eukarya( Consisting of every other kingdom. Lesson 4: Viruses Definitions ​ Structural Diversity: Structural differences between organisms, can happen on microscopic and non-microscopic levels ​ Virus: A structure that contain DNA or RNA surrounded by a protective protein coat ​ Capsid: Outer protein layer surrounding genetic material in a virus ​ Provirus: A virus that is integrated into the host cells DNA General Info Differences between Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells Characteristics Prokaryotes(Bacteria and Eukaryotes(Protists, Plants, Archaea) Fungi, Animals) Size 1-10 µm 100-1000 µm Genetic Material ​ Circular DNA ​ DNA in nucleus ​ No Membrane ​ Has Membrane ​ Genome is single ​ Genome has several Chromosome​ chromosomes Cell Division Binary Fission Mitosis+Meiosis Reproduction Asexual “Replication” Sexual # of Cells Most Unicellular Most Multicellular Organelles Absence of membrane Presence of membrane Metabolism Anaerobic- No oxygen needed Aerobic- Oxygen needed for cellular for cellular respiration respiration Are Viruses Alive? Viruses are not considered alive, and some of the reasons why are: ​ Not able to survive outside of host cells and are considered dormant ​ Neither eukaryotic or prokaryotic, as they have no cytoplasm or organelles Classification of viruses Viruses are classified based on capsid size and shape. The 4 classifications are listed below Replication of Viruses Viruses replicate in 2 cycles, the Lytic(left), and the Lysogenic(Right). ​ Lytic Cycle: The virus, a host cell, uses the machinery in there to create parts of itself, assembles the parts to make more copies of itself, and then kills the host cell spreading the newly created viruses. All cells perform the lytic cycle, and the lytic cycle is when an infected host will experience symptoms. ​ Lysogenic Cycle: The virus integrates into the cell's nucleus, and then allows the infected cell to duplicate, creating more copies of itself. It will then resume the lytic cycle eventually. Not all cells perform this cycle, and viruses in this cycle will often not create symptoms. Lesson 5: Comparing Bacteria and Archaea Definitions ​ Aggregations: groups or clusters of bacteria or archaea ​ Methanogenesis: Process unique to Archaea. Creates energy for the organism, and has a byproduct of methane (CH4) ​ Photosynthesis: Process unique to certain bacteria.  ​ Cyanobacteria: Bacteria that performs photosynthesis General Info Prokaryotes fall under 2 of the three domains. Bacteria and Archaea. Morphology of Prokaryotes Both Bacteria and Archaea are often found in aggregations and tend to take one of 3 shapes listed below: ​ Cocci: Round/spherical shaped. Will form chains called Streptococcus ​ Bacilli: Rod Shaped. Will form chains called Streptobacillus ​ Spirillum: Spiral shaped. Much less common than other 2 shapes The species name of bacteria will often indicate the shape of a bacterial cell. Habitat Another way Archaea and bacteria differ is in their habitat. Bacteria live in places with moderate conditions, and are considered mesophiles. Archaea live in places with extreme conditions, and are considered extremophiles. Types of Extremophiles: There are 3 main types of extremophiles that most archaea belong to. They are: ​ Thermophiles: Enjoy extremely high temperatures, examples of habitats are near deep sea vents and near hot springs ​ Acidophiles: Enjoy low ph conditions like in mine drainage sites and volcanic crater lakes ​ Halophiles: Enjoy high salt concentrations, like in the dead sea. Replication Both archaea and bacteria perform binary fission, a process where one cell duplicates its DNA, divides at septum, and produces 2 identical daughter cells. Bacteria in less favorable conditions Though bacteria can’t survive in extreme conditions for long periods of time, they have adopted a few strategies that help them live for short periods of time. ​ Conjugation: Where 2 bacteria will pass genetic material between individuals to survive and spread genes ​ Creation of Endospores: When bacteria creates a hard protective shell that shields that from the elements like high temps, freezing, radiation, and harmful chemicals. When suitable conditions return, endospores will germinate back into active bacteria. Lesson 6: Eukaryotic Evolution and Diversity Definitions ​ Endosymbiosis: The process of one cell engulfing another to create a new cell General Info Prokaryotic cells have existed for 3.5 billion years, and after 1.5 billion years, eukaryotic cells formed. Primary theory for formation of eukaryotic cells The main theory states that a cytoplasm-like prokaryotic cell engulfed smaller ones organelle-like prokaryotes. These smaller ones then became membrane bound organelles like chloroplast and mitochondria. It is believed that these organelles existed as individual prokaryotic cells at one point, until being engulfed and slowly being combined with the larger cytoplasm-like cell. These organelles have adapted to the point where they can no longer survive outside of the cell. Evidence of Endosymbiotic Theory Some evidence to support this theory is: ​ The membrane of mitochondria and chloroplasts is very similar to the membrane of living prokaryotes with similar or identical functions. ​ Ribosomes inside of these organelles are more similar to other prokaryotic ribosomes than ribosomes found elsewhere in the greater eukaryotic cell. ​ The organelles reproduce via binary fission, and a eukaryotic cell without these organelles, is incapable of producing new ones ​ The DNA inside the organelles closely resembles similar prokaryotes, EX. The DNA inside a chloroplast very closely resembles the DNA inside cyanobacteria, which is known for its ability to perform photosynthesis, which is the primary function of the chloroplast. Dawn of multicellular Organisms It is said that multicellular organisms started from groups of individual cells dividing. Certain cells would then specialize in certain functions, and begin to rely on the specialties of other cells to survive. This led to the development of multicellular organisms, where these cells would only be able to survive with other cells. Lesson 7: Protists Definitions ​ Protozoan: Another term for animal like protist ​ Protist: A eukaryotic, typically unicellular organism classified on how it obtains nutrients General Info Animal-like Protists Heterotrophic protists that consume to obtain nutrients. The phylums are: ​ Cercozoa(Ex. amoeba): Has no cell walls and can change shape freely. It moves and feeds using Pseudopods, which are extensions of the cytoplasm. ​ Ciliophora(EX. paramecium): Classified by the hair like projections on surface, called Cilia, which are also used for movement and feeding ​ Zoomastigina: Classified by the long hair-like projection extending from the cell membrane like a tail, known as the flagellum, which is also used for feeding and movement. Fungus-like Protists Heterotrophs that absorb nutrients instead of ingesting them. The types are: ​ Plasmodial Slime Mould: Appears similar to small slug like surfaces creeping over damp decaying surfaces. Eat food by engulfing it with their cytoplasm, similar to amoeba. ​ Cellular Slime Mould: Are individual cells with one nucleus each. When food is scarce, they will merge together to form a pseudoplasmodium, which will be a sum of all their genetic material ​ Water Mould: Filamentous organisms that resemble fungi. Will either live on dead materials, or will function like parasites, feeding off a live host. Plant-like Protists Are autotrophs that perform photosynthesis. The phylums are: ​ Chrysophyta(Diatoms): Are aquatic(phytoplankton), and produce large amounts of oxygen. ​ Pyrrophyta(Dinoflagellates): Are aquatic(phytoplankton), and have three flagella, with 2 pointing in different directions. They spin flagellates to move akin to a propeller. They also reproduce quickly, and will produce algal blooms. ​ Euglenoids: Autotrophs when in the sun, but heterotrophs when in the dark. Lesson 8: Algae General Info Algae is a protist, not a plant. When multicellular, algae becomes referred to as seaweed. It is believed plants evolved from algae, as they are the only other kingdom(protists) to have photosynthetic organisms. Phylums of Algae ​ Phaeophyta(Brown Algae): Is the largest and most complex type of algae, and contributes to a variety of marine environments. They don’t have typical plant parts, and instead have the Holdfast(root-like structure), Stipe(Stem like structure), Blade(leaf like structure), and the bladder, which is filled with air and used to control the stipe. ​ Rhodophyta(Red Algae): Was the first multicellular organism on the earth, and contains chlorophyll in addition to another pigment called phycoerythrin, which is extremely sensitive to light, and thus can gather more light at greater depths. ​ Chlorophyta(Green Algae): Very structurally diverse. Most similar to plants, and contain a cell wall with cellulose. Most likely is where plants evolved from. Algae becoming Terrestrial To survive on land, algae needed to develop the ability to: ​ Have protection from drying out, thus a system to transport water. ​ Access to sunlight via leaves, and thus a system to hold up leaves. ​ Gain embryos to change how they reproduce. Lesson 9: Plants General Info Plants can be classified into 3 different phylums, based on if they have vascular tissue, and seeds. Non-vascular plants: Bryophytes Bryophytes were the first plants, and include things like mosses, liverworts, and hornworts. They depend on diffusion and osmosis to transport nutrients, and thus grow low to the ground to obtain the most water possible, and then retain said water like a sponge. They have no roots, but do have small root-like structures. They reproduce using sporic reproduction, and individuals will alternate between gamete making and spore making individuals. Seedless Vascular Plants These plants(ferns, horse tails) developed vascular tissue, and could grow much taller. They also use spores to reproduce, but are Self-Fertilizing. This leads to very little genetic variation, and is why there are very few of these species left. Seed-producing Vascular Plants Seeds allow for sexual reproduction without water. They require sperm to be carried to female gametes, typically in the form of pollen. There are 2 types of these plants. ​ Gymnosperms: These are conifers, and use cones to carry their seeds. Cones with male gametes are typically soft and short lived, while cones with female gametes are long lived and much harder. ​ Angiosperms: Anything that doesn’t use cones to reproduce. Some plants use a flower, which typically contains both male and female gametes, tries to attract animals to spread pollen if colorful, and relies on wind if non-colourful. Others use Fruit, which are either used to protect the seeds, or promote animals eating them to excrete elsewhere. The fruit is referred to as the ovaries of the flower, and are where the female gametes are housed and developed. Angiosperms are classified based on the structure of their cotyledon(where the seed initially receives nutrients from) Lesson 10: Fungus General Info Fungi are not plants, and instead are heterotrophs more closely related to humans than plants Anatomy of Fungus Fungi are eukaryotic, and tend to follow a similar structure: Nutrition in Fungus Unlike animals, who consume then digest, fungi release enzymes to first digest their food, then absorb it. There are four ways fungi get their nutrition: ​ Parasitic: Lives inside a living host, and feeds off of it. Will eventually kill the host, and release fruiting bodies from its corpse to produce spores. ​ Predatory: Fungi who have specialized mycelium used for trapping prey. ​ Mutualistic: Similar to parasitic, except both parties(host and fungus) benefit from the relationship ​ Saprobial: Feed on dead organisms or organic waste that still contains some nutrients. Reproduction in Fungi Fungi can reproduce both sexually and asexually. Some methods of reproduction include spores, budding(portion of fungi breaking of and living independently), and fragmentation(portion of fungi breaking off, growing, and then living independently) Lesson 11: Animals Definitions ​ Tetrapod: Animal with limbs General Info The animal kingdom contains 35 different phylum, with roughly half being worms. For an animal to be considered an animal, it must: ​ Be eukaryotic and multicellular, but without cell walls ​ Be a heterotroph ​ Be mobile in one stage of their life ​ Be capable of sexual reproduction Classifying animals All animals are classified by many traits, all being listed below. Presence absence of spine. ​ Invertebrate(No backbone), include ~95% of animals ​ Vertebrae(backbone) Animals are also organized based on their complexity, and which organ systems they may contain(circulatory, respiratory, digestive, and nervous) \ Most animals also have 3 body layers, and are classified based on that: ​ Ectoderm(Outer layer): Develop into skin/nerves/sensory organs ​ Mesoderm(Middle layer): Develop into muscle, kidney, blood, and reproductive organs. ​ Endoderm(Inner layer): Develop into lungs, liver, pancreas, and bladder. Animals are also classified based on their body symmetry: ​ Asymmetrical: No symmetry ​ Radial: Can be divided along many central axes. ​ Bilateral: Can be divided into mirror halves Animals are also classified based on their body cavities, and the presence/absence of a Coelom(space where organ systems inhabit and where muscles attach) They are also classified based on segmentation, and if their body is divided into repeating segments(Ex centipede). This has advantages, as it provides mobility, and if one segment gets damaged, the rest can still function properly. They are also classified based on how they move. Most move via muscle and nerve tissue, and some like sponges and anemones are sessile(stationary as adults) They are also classified based on how gametes combine(reproduction), and whether it happens internally or externally(in aquatic environments). Invertebrate animals Invertebrates can be found in every major ecosystem on the planet, and there are 5 major categories. ​ Sponges/Cnidarians  ​ Worms ​ Molluscs(have a shell) ​ Echinoderms(Ex starfish or sea urchins) ​ Arthropods(bugs) Vertebrate animals Are classified based on the presence of a notochord(vertebral column), and dorsal nerve(spinal cord). There are 5 main groups of vertebrates, that evolved in the following order: ​ Fish: 50% of vertebrates, and evolved into tetrapods ​ Amphibians: The first tetrapods. Can live portion of lives on land, and use skin to breath, as well as reproduce externally(need aquatic environment) ​ Reptiles: Scales prevent dehydration, thus don’t need to be near aquatic environments. Have shelled eggs and lungs, a 3 chambered heart, and rely on environment to regulate temperature(Ectothermic) ​ Birds: Can maintain temperature internally(Endothermic), and has a 4 chambered heart. ​ Mammals: Have mammary glands. Groups of mammals All mammals are classified into 3 groups: ​ Monotremes: Are egg living mammals mostly found in Australia, and are extremely rare(Only known examples being the echidna and platypus). ​ Marsupials: Animals with pouches, who have a short gestation period(time pregnant), and develop mostly outside of mother. Also mostly found in Australia. ​ Placental: Have a Placenta, an organ inside the mother that exchanges nutrients with the fetus. Is the most diverse mammal group.  Unit 4: Animals and Organ Systems Lesson 1: Functions of the Circulatory System In single-celled organisms, the exchange of nutrients and gases with the environment occurs through diffusion. This process becomes much more complex in multicellular organisms since every cell in the body requires a constant supply of nutrients and gases. The organism must have a specialized system for delivering these essential substances to all its cells, which is known as the circulatory system There are three major functions of the circulatory system: 1. ​ It transports gases (from the respiratory system), nutrient molecules, and waste materials (from the digestive system) 2. ​ It regulates internal temperature and transports chemical substances that are vital to health from one part of the body to the other 3. ​ It protects against blood loss from injury and against disease-causing microbes or toxic substances introduced into the body The components of the circulatory system are broken down into three main parts: the heart, blood vessels, and the blood. The heart is a muscular organ that has the job of continuously pumping blood through the body and creating blood flow. The blood vessels are a system of hollow tubes which blood moves through. Blood is a fluid that transports nutrients, oxygen, carbon dioxide, and many other materials throughout the body. Many invertebrates have an open circulatory system, so-called because the blood flows freely within the body cavity and directly contacts the organs and tissues. In this system, the blood mixes with other bodily fluids, forming a substance known as hemolymph. Unlike closed circulatory systems, there is no network of complex blood vessels. The heart in an open system has small openings called ostia, which allow hemolymph to enter from the body cavity. Muscular contractions then move the hemolymph through the heart's chambers and back into the body cavity. Vertebrates have a closed circulatory system, where blood is kept within vessels and is separated from the surrounding body tissues. In this system, blood flows in a continuous, controlled path through a network of vessels. This ensures that the blood remains contained, unlike in open circulatory systems. The human heart is a vital organ, located just to the left of the center of the chest and roughly the size of a fist. It is composed of specialized muscle cells known as cardiac muscle cells, which are distinct from regular muscle cells. These cells have the unique ability to contract and relax rhythmically and involuntarily, without tiring. The human heart is four-chambered like all mammals. The top two chambers consist of atria which fill with blood returning from the body or the lungs. The bottom two chambers are known as the ventricles which receive blood from the atria and pump it out to the rest of the body. The wall that separates these chambers is called the septum. Lesson 2: Blood Vessels and Heart Anatomy Blood Vessels As we know blood vessels are tube-like structures that carry blood throughout the body. Blood can only be carried by the pumping mechanism known as the heart which forces blood through blood vessels of the body. The most major blood vessels (largest) are connected directly to the 4 chambers of the heart. The three kinds of blood vessels are arteries, veins and capillaries. Arteries come in different sizes and have corresponding names biggest to smallest being Aorta then artery then arteriole. Veins are similar with veniolues then veinole then veins. Capillaries are a network or bed where an exchange of gasses,nutrients and waste occurs. A general rule is arteries bring blood away from the heart, veins bring blood towards the heart. The third type of vessel is known as a capillaries which transports blood from arteries to veins. The blood that is found in arteries is oxygenated (oxygen rich) the exception is the pulmonary arteries which transports deoxygenated blood (oxygen poor) but is still considered an artery as it transports blood away from the heart. The blood found in veins is deoxygenated the exception is the pulmonary veins which transports oxygenated blood. The only blood vessels that have valves are in veins as it is needed to prevent blood from pooling/flowing backwards. Each blood vessel has certain characteristics important for its role in transporting blood. Arteries have walls to expand and contract as the pressure of the blood leaving the ventricles increases and decreases. Veins have thinner walls, and a larger internal circumference. While capillaries are one cell layer thick. The blood pressure will be carrying blood out from the heart to the cells of the body via the arteries while veins carry blood back to heart so it can be delivered to lungs. Capillaries are where the exchange of nutrients, O2 and waste between the cells of the body and the circulatory system. The image to the left shows the differences in characteristics of the three main types of blood vessels. Pulmonary Circuit This is the path that blood follows from the heart to the lungs and back to the heart. The blood that is carried to the lungs is deoxygenated and through gas exchange the blood becomes oxygenated and travels back to the heart. The pulmonary circuit is the relationship of heart and your lungs. Systemic circuit This is the path that blood follows from the heart to the body and back to the heart.The blood that is carried to the tissues and organs of the body (lungs not included) is oxygenated and after interacting with these tissues the blood takes the waste CO2 back to the heart and the cycle restarts. 80-90% of our blood is being used in systemic circulation. This diagram shows the relationship of these two circuits ​ Labeled Heart Lesson 3: The Human Heart Link to Lesson Lesson 4: Blood and Circulatory Disorders Link to note Lesson 5: Human Respiratory System Link to note Lesson 6: Functions of Repiration Link to note Lesson 7: Disorders Shit Link to my project Lesson 8: Function of Digestion Link to note Lesson 9: Human digestive system Link to note Lesson 10: Chemical Digestion Link to note Unit 5: Plants Module 1: Guerilla Gardening Definitions: Food Desert: An urban area where fresh produce and healthy food options aren’t readily available, either due to costs, or lack of supply. Module 2: Pollinator Beds Definitions: Pollinators: Any species that is responsible for the transport of pollen Pollenation: The action of moving pollen from a male plant part to a female plant part Pollen: The male gamete of a sexually reproducing plant Pollinator Garden: A garden focused on attracting pollinators. General Info: The primary reason why we should be concerned about pollination is that many things that are influenced by human actions EX. Use of pesticides, Climate change, and Loss of habitat are threatening pollinator populations. We can help prevent this by trying not to participate in things that promote these events, but also doing things to help pollinators, like planting pollinator friendly plants, and other actions. Module 4: Traditional Medicines  Traditional Plants Activity Link to three plant idk Module 5: Xeriscaping Definitions: Xeriscaping: Any farming method that involves a priority of conserving water, via plant species, soil composition, or other methods. Xeriscape: A garden that uses xeriscaping. Module 6: Permaculture Definitions: Permaculture: A method of farming that is intended to create a self-sustaining ecosystem. Food forest: A garden that is very natural in appearance and function, and while it does produce food, it doesn’t feel artificial. Module 7: Plant Structure Module 7.5:Monocots VS Dicots Module 8: Major parts of a Plant Major Parts of a Plant ^^^ Link to video that covers all of below Definitions: Phloem: Vascular tissue that prioritizes the transportation of food and nutrients Xylem: Vascular tissue that prioritizes the transport of water. General Info: There are three major parts of a plant, watch one having several smaller parts. Those three major parts are the roots, stem, and leaves. Roots The roots main purpose is to anchor the plant, and absorb nutrients from the soil. There are 2 main types of roots: ​ Taproots: Has one central, long and thick root with many other smaller roots splintering off of it. Typically present in Dicots ​ Fibrous Roots: Consists of several main roots that branch repeatedly. TYpically present in monocots Roots will often be pointed towards the end, with a root cap at the tip, a collection of dead cells that protect the live root from rocks and other things it may encounter with the potential to harm the root. Roots also have root hairs that increase the surface area of the root, allowing for more room to absorb nutrients. Inside a root is Vascular Tissue, that acts akin to blood vessels in the human body. They transport nutrients from the root to the rest of the plant. There are 2 types: ​ Xylem: Transports water from roots to rest of the plant ​ Phloem: Transports food from the leaves to the root to. Stem The main function of a stem is to transport food and water from the roots and leaves, support the leaves of the plant, and potentially store nutrients for later use. They transport these materials using xylem and phloem. There are also 2 types of stems: ​ Herbaceous: Soft and bendy, like flower stems ​ Woody: Rigid and firm, like tree trunks. They also have a third outer layer of bark that herbaceous stems do not have. There is also a layer in stems called the cambium, that divides to make new phloem and xylem. Differences are present between monocots and dicots(look above to find differences) Leaves The primary purpose of all leaves, despite the size or shape, is to perform photosynthesis and create food for the plant. The parts of a leaf can be seen in the figure to the right. It is also not shown here, but there is xylem and phloem present in the leaf to transport materials in and out of the leaf. Module 9: Plant Vocab Definitions: Palisade layer: Upper half of the leaf responsible for trapping energy and performing photosynthesis with the abundance of chlorophyll it has. Epidermis: A single cell layer above and below the leaf that protects the inside of the leaf from the environment. Cuticle: The outermost layer of the leaf Mesophyll: The entirety of the leaf that is between the 2 epidermal layers. Venation: The vein-like structure that covers the leaf Gibberellins: Hormones of the plant responsible for regulating growth, dormancy, flowering, and other processes. Stomata: Pores in leaves that allow for the intake of gasses Root hair: A growth from the side of a root that allows for increased water intake. Pistil: The female reproductive organ of a flower. (See figure in module 7) Stamen: The pollen producing part of the flower. “”””””””””””””” Aerenchyma: Spongy tissue that allows for the exchange and transport of gas from above ground to below ground Auxin: A hormone produced by the stem tip that encourages growth towards light. Module 11: How trees talk to each other Idek trees talk through carbon transmission is all I really understood Module 12: Methods of propagation https://plantcelltechnology.com/blogs/blog/blog-seven-methods-of-plant-pro pagation Link to blog, it has all the info Module 13: Sexual Reproduction in Plants Definitions ​ Carpel: Another word for pistil(See above) ​ Sepel: Part of flower bud that protects the flower before it blooms ​ Pollination: Act of transporting pollen from the anthers to the stigma ​ Self Pollination: When a flower is pollinated with its own pollen, or pollen from the same plant. ​ Cross pollination: Not self pollination tf ​ Agent: A thing that performs pollination ​ Embryo: Many divisions after the initial zygote, when the ovule can grow into a new plant. General Info ​ The carpel is the female reproductive part of the flower, and produce eggs ​ Stamen is the male reproductive part, and produces pollen(male gametes) ​ The petals main job is to attract pollinators ​ Flowers with both reproductive organs are called Bisexual Flowers ​ Some flowers only contain one reproductive organ, and in this case, the plant of org. Will grow 2 different types of flowers ​ “Famous” Flowers are usually bisexual, while flowers of big fruits are usually unisexual ​ The egg cells(Female gametes) are found inside the ovules of the carpel ​ A tube will grow from a pollen grain, through the style, into an ovule, where 2 fertilizations happen, one with the egg cell, and one with the ovule cell ​ Cotyledons will form as a part of the embryo, with a Plumule in the middle that will grow into a new shute, and the Radicle which will grow into the roots. ​ When fertilization is finished, the petals and stamen will fall off, and the ovary will swell and turn into a fruit. Module 14: Transportation of Water Definitions ​ Cohesion: When water molecules stick together due to electrostatic attraction ​ Adhesion: When water molecules stick to other objects due to electrostatic attraction ​ Cavitation: The spontaneous appearance of air bubbles in a liquid General Info ​ Transpiration: Transpiration is the technical term for the evaporation of water from plants. As water evaporates through the stomata in the leaves (or any part of the plant exposed to air), it creates a negative pressure (also called tension or suction) in the leaves and tissues of the xylem.​ The negative pressure exerts a pulling force on the water in the plant’s xylem and draws the water upward (just like you draw water upward when you suck on a straw). ​ Cohesion: When water molecules stick to one another through cohesion, they fill the column in the xylem and act as a huge single molecule of water (like water in a straw). ​ Capillary action: Capillary action is the movement of a liquid across the surface of a solid caused by adhesion between the two. When you place a tube in water, water automatically moves up the sides of the tube because of adhesion, even before you apply any sucking force. The narrower the tube, the higher the water climbs on its own. In plants, adhesion forces water up the columns of cells in the xylem and through fine tubes in the cell wall. To repair the lines of water after cavitation, plants create root pressure to push water up into the xylem. At night, root cells release ions into the xylem, increasing its solute concentration. Water flows into the xylem by osmosis, pushing a broken water column up through the gap until it reaches the rest of the column. If environmental conditions cause rapid water loss, plants can protect themselves by closing their stomata. However, after the stomata are closed, plants don’t have access to carbon dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere, which shuts down photosynthesis. Some plants, like those that live in deserts, must routinely juggle between the competing demands of getting CO2 and not losing too much water. Module 15: Ecological Succession Definitions ​ Primary succession: When life colonizes land for the first time ​ Pioneer Species: The first species to colonize an area ​ Secondary Succession: The colonization of land after it has been destroyed by a disaster or some cataclysmic event Module 16: Sustainable Farm Definitions