Introduction to Biology Flashcards PDF

Chapter 1: Introduction to Biology 1. What is Biology?: Biology is the scienti c study of life and living organisms. 2. Scienti c Study Components: Observation, Question, Hypothesis, Controlled Experiment, Independent Variable, Dependent Variable, Controlled Variables, P...

Chapter 1: Introduction to Biology 1. What is Biology?: Biology is the scienti c study of life and living organisms. 2. Scienti c Study Components: Observation, Question, Hypothesis, Controlled Experiment, Independent Variable, Dependent Variable, Controlled Variables, Prediction, Conclusion. 3. Randomized Controlled Trial / Double-Blind Experiment: Participants randomly assigned; in double-blind trials, neither participants nor experimenters know who receives treatment. 4. Scienti c Theory: A well-substantiated explanation of aspects of the natural world. 5. Scienti c Method Questions: Can address measurable, observable, and testable questions, not opinions or supernatural beliefs. Chapter 2: Chemistry of Life 1. Matter: Anything that has mass and takes up space. 2. Elements & Atoms: Elements are pure substances made of one type of atom. Atoms are the basic unit of matter. 3. Atomic Number & Atomic Mass: Atomic number is the number of protons; atomic mass is protons + neutrons. 4. Isotopes & Ions: Isotopes have the same protons but different neutrons. Ions are charged atoms due to the loss or gain of electrons. 5. Top 4 Elements in Human Body: Oxygen, Carbon, Hydrogen, Nitrogen. 6. Types of Bonds: Ionic (electrons transferred), Covalent (electrons shared), Hydrogen (weak attraction). 7. Bond Capacity: Depends on the number of valence electrons (e.g., Carbon can form 4 covalent bonds). 8. Properties of Water: Cohesion, adhesion, high heat capacity, ice is less dense, solvent ability. 9. Radioactive Decay & Radiometric Dating: Unstable isotopes break down at a constant rate; radiometric dating estimates fossil age. Chapter 3: Molecules of Life fi fi fi fi  1. Covalent Bonds in Carbon: Carbon can form 4 covalent bonds. 2. Monomers & Polymers: Carbohydrates (monosaccharides → polysaccharides), Proteins (amino acids → polypeptides), Nucleic Acids (nucleotides → DNA/RNA), Lipids (not polymers). 3. Dehydration vs. Hydrolysis: Dehydration builds polymers by removing water, hydrolysis breaks polymers by adding water. 4. Saturated vs. Unsaturated Fats: Saturated have no double bonds, are solid at room temp; unsaturated have double bonds, are liquid. 5. Protein Structure: Shape determines function. Denatured proteins lose shape and function. 6. Nucleotide Structure: Phosphate group, sugar (deoxyribose or ribose), nitrogenous base. 7. DNA vs. RNA: DNA is double-stranded, deoxyribose, thymine. RNA is single-stranded, ribose, uracil. Chapter 4: The Cell 1. Cell Theory: All living things are made of cells, cells are the basic unit of life, and all cells come from other cells. 2. Prokaryotes vs. Eukaryotes: Prokaryotes have no nucleus, eukaryotes have a nucleus and complex organelles. 3. Cell Parts: Plasma membrane, ribosomes, nucleus, cytoplasm, cytoskeleton, mitochondria, rough ER, smooth ER, Golgi apparatus, lysosome. 4. Fluid Mosaic Model: Membranes are exible and made of phospholipids with embedded proteins. 5. Nucleus: Stores DNA and controls cell activities. 6. Ribosomes: Site of protein synthesis. 7. DNA → Protein Production: DNA transcribed to RNA, then translated by ribosomes into proteins. 8. Endomembrane System: Includes ER, Golgi, lysosomes, vacuoles, nuclear envelope, ribosomes. 9. Plant vs. Animal Cells: Plant cells have cell walls, chloroplasts, and large vacuoles. Animal cells lack cell walls and chloroplasts. fl  Chapter 5: The Working Cell 1. ATP Structure & Function: ATP releases energy when a phosphate bond is broken. 2. Enzymes & Activation Energy: Enzymes lower activation energy to speed up reactions. 3. Induced Fit: Enzyme changes shape to t substrate. 4. Membrane Proteins: Functions include transport, signal reception, support, and cell recognition. 5. Membrane Transport: Passive (no energy) and Active (requires energy) transport. Diffusion, osmosis, facilitated diffusion, and active transport. 6. Tonicity: Hypertonic (cell shrivels), Hypotonic (cell swells). 7. Bulk Transport: Exocytosis and Endocytosis. Chapter 6: Cellular Respiration 1. Overall Equation: Glucose + O₂ → CO₂ + H₂O + ATP. 2. Aerobic vs. Anaerobic: Aerobic requires oxygen; anaerobic does not. 3. Glycolysis: Glucose → 2 ATP, 2 NADH, 2 pyruvate. 4. Citric Acid Cycle: Produces ATP, CO₂, NADH, FADH₂. 5. Electron Transport Chain: Produces ~34 ATP. 6. Fermentation: In animals: lactic acid, in yeast: ethanol + CO₂. Chapter 7: Photosynthesis 1. De nition & Location: Photosynthesis converts light energy into glucose, occurring in chloroplasts. 2. Light Reactions: Occur in thylakoids. 3. Calvin Cycle: Occurs in stroma, converts CO₂ into glucose. 4. Chlorophyll: Absorbs blue and red light, re ects green. 5. C3, C4, CAM Plants: Adaptations to conserve water. fi fi fl Chapter 8: Cell Reproduction 1. Mitosis vs. Meiosis: Mitosis is for growth and repair; meiosis is for gamete formation. 2. Cell Cycle: Interphase (G1, S, G2) + M phase (mitosis + cytokinesis). 3. Mitosis (PMAT): Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase. 4. Cytokinesis: Division of cytoplasm. 5. Cancer: Uncontrolled cell division. 6. Meiosis: Reduces chromosome number by half, produces 4 unique haploid gametes. Chapter 9: Patterns of Inheritance 1. Alleles: Different versions of a gene. 2. Dominant vs. Recessive: Dominant (A), Recessive (aa). 3. Homozygous vs. Heterozygous: Homozygous (AA/aa), Heterozygous (Aa). 4. Genotype vs. Phenotype: Genotype (e.g., Aa), Phenotype (e.g., purple owers). 5. Monohybrid Cross: Involves one trait. 6. Punnett Squares: Predict genetic outcomes. 7. Pedigrees: Track inheritance in families. 8. Incomplete Dominance: Blended traits (e.g., pink owers from red + white). 9. Codominance: Both alleles are expressed (e.g., AB blood). 10. Polygenic Inheritance: Multiple genes affect a trait. 11. Sex-Linked Genes: Traits more common in males. Chapter 10: Molecular Biology of the Gene 1. DNA vs. RNA: DNA is double-stranded (thymine), RNA is single-stranded (uracil). 2. Codons: 3-base sequences in mRNA that code for amino acids. 3. Transcription: DNA → RNA in the nucleus. fl fl  4. Translation: mRNA → Protein in ribosomes. 5. Mutations: Substitution, insertion, deletion. 6. Gene Expression: Turning genes on/off to produce proteins. Chapter 11: Gene Regulation 1. Introns vs. Exons: Introns are non-coding, exons are coding regions. 2. Homeotic Genes: Control body development. 3. Oncogenes: Mutated genes causing cancer by overstimulating cell division. Chapter 13: How Populations Evolve 1. Natural Selection: Organisms better adapted survive and reproduce. 2. Gene Pool: All alleles in a population. 3. Hardy-Weinberg Formula: p² + 2pq + q² = 1, tests if a population is evolving. 4. Genetic Drift: Random changes in allele frequencies. 5. Founder & Bottleneck Effects: Loss of genetic diversity. 6. Gene Flow: Movement of alleles between populations. 7. Fitness: Ability to survive and reproduce. 8. Types of Selection: Directional, stabilizing, disruptive. 9. Sexual Selection: Traits improving mating success.