Introduction to Botany Lecture Notes PDF

Ginyard International Co. INTRODUCTION TO BOTANY Imanuel P. Prudentino NUEVA ECIJA UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY Introduction to Botany the scientific study of plants, incl...

Ginyard International Co. INTRODUCTION TO BOTANY Imanuel P. Prudentino NUEVA ECIJA UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY Introduction to Botany the scientific study of plants, including their physiology, structure, genetics, ecology, distribution, classification, and economic importance The time frame encompassed by botany extends from the present back to almost 3.5 billion years ago, the age of the earliest fossilized cells. NUEVA ECIJA UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY What are Plants? Plants are one of the two major groups of living organisms that are an essential entity to the function of the biosphere. Plants (Kingdom Plantae) include organisms that range in size from tiny mosses to giant trees. Despite this enormous variation, all plants are multicellular and eukaryotic. NUEVA ECIJA UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY What makes plant a Eukaryotic organism? They are more complicated than prokaryotes. Eukaryotic cells contain organized nuclei They have membrane-bound organelles. NUEVA ECIJA UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY What is an organelle? An organelle is a subcellular structure that has one or more specific jobs to perform in the cell, much like an organ does in the body. NUEVA ECIJA UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY What is Turgor pressure? Pressure exerted by fluid in a cell that presses the cell membrane against the cell wall allowing the plant to firmly establish itself upright. Turgor is what makes living plant tissue rigid. Loss of turgor, resulting from the loss of water from plant cells, causes flowers and leaves to wilt. Note: It’s similar in a water hose where the structure is firm when water is currently running inside NUEVA ECIJA UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY NUEVA ECIJA UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY What are the characteristics of plants? Did you know? Plants make their own food through photosynthesis, where they use sunlight, carbon dioxide, and water to produce glucose and oxygen. NUEVA ECIJA UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY Example of photoautotroph organism Common name: Emerald Green Sea Slug Scientific name: Elysia chlorotica Plants, algae, and cyanobacteria are autotrophs that use light energy from the Sun to convert carbon dioxide and water to the organic molecule glucose. NUEVA ECIJA UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY What are the characteristics of plants? NUEVA ECIJA UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY What are the characteristics of plants? NUEVA ECIJA UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY What are the characteristics of plants? Responsible for the growth in length and formation of new tissues Plants exhibit indeterminate growth: they will continue adding new organs (leaves, stems, roots) as long as they have access to the necessary resources. This ability is due to the Responsible for root presence of meristems growth at certain locations. NUEVA ECIJA UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY But why does this happen? Meristematic cells (APICAL AND ROOT) continuously divide through mitosis. This cell division produces new cells that can differentiate into various specialized cell types needed for the plant's growth and development. NUEVA ECIJA UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY Based on this image, where do you think the growth is occurring? NUEVA ECIJA UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY They also do not have a genetically predetermined growth apex FACT: If a plant gets more sunlight on one side, it might grow more toward that side. If it's crowded, it might grow taller to reach more light. Plants are flexible and adjust their growth depending on what's happening around them, rather than following a strict, unchangeable blueprint. NUEVA ECIJA UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY What are the characteristics of plants? Shoot: The above-ground part of a plant, including the stem and leaves, involved in growth and photosynthesis. Leaves: Flat, green structures on a plant where photosynthesis occurs. Nodes: Points on the stem where leaves or branches attach. Internodes: Sections of the stem between nodes. Axillary Bud: A bud in the angle between a leaf and stem that can grow into a branch or flower. Petiole: The stalk that connects a leaf to the stem. NUEVA ECIJA UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY What are the characteristics of plants? Plant cells are formed at the meristems, which are found in regions of the plant where growth can take place, forming new tissue due to these actively dividing cells, named meristematic cells. These cells give rise to plant organs and keep the plant growing. ⚬ APICAL MERISTEM - The meristem for primary growth are located at the tips of shoots and roots. ⚬ SECONDARY MERISTEM- The stem and roots of many plants expand in thickness through cylindrical secondary meristems that produce wood and bark NUEVA ECIJA UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY What are the characteristics of plants? The growth of the roots and stems in length with the help of apical meristem is called the primary growth. Apart from primary growth, most dicotyledonous plants exhibit an increase in girth. This increase is called the secondary growth which produces the cork. NUEVA ECIJA UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY What are the characteristics of plants? In the active absorption, the water first enters the cell and passes from one cell to another through osmosis in the plasmodesmata and cytoplasm for movement from one cell to another. This type of movement where plasmodesmata and cytoplasm is involved is called symplast. Note: This is the pressure from water inside plant cells pushing against the cell walls. It helps keep the plant stiff and upright. NUEVA ECIJA UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY What are the characteristics of plants? The root hairs take water from the soil by a process called osmosis. In osmosis, water molecules move from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower concentration through a semi-permeable membrane. The concentration of the water molecules is lower in the root hair than in the soil. NUEVA ECIJA UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY What are the characteristics of plants? Thus, water moves from the soil (lower solute concentration) into the root cells (higher solute concentration) through osmosis." NUEVA ECIJA UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY *Another type of pathway In passive absorption, water moves through the apoplast pathway. The apoplast path includes the cell wall and Note: Has Suberin, a waxy impermeable molecule that intercellular stops water from passing. spaces. NUEVA ECIJA UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY What are the characteristics of plants? Haploid cells will Through mitosis, another set of divide using the haploid cells are produced which process called mitosis are the gametophyte Gametophyte will produce gametes (the sperm and egg) Pollen – male gametophyte It will fuse to create zygote (diploid cells containing Will produce haploid both of the chromosomes) cells (spores) through meiosis Has 2 copies of each chromosome NUEVA ECIJA UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY What are the characteristics of plants? Meiosis is a process where a single cell divides twice to produce four cells containing half number of chromosomes as the parent cell. Mitosis is the type of cell division that results in the formation of two daughter cells each with the same number and kind of chromosomes as the parent cell. NUEVA ECIJA UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY What are the characteristics of plants? Plants protect themselves with the use of layers of fibrous or stony tissues, superficial hairs or scales, spines, thorns or prickles, repellant or toxic chemicals, and provide food and shelter to animals that actively defend the plant. NUEVA ECIJA UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY What are the characteristics of plants? Prickles are different from thorns and spines; they are merely corky outgrowths from the plant's outer layer, or dermal tissue. Note: Cork is a type of plant tissue that forms a protective layer on the outside of certain plants. It is known for being lightweight, durable, and water-resistant. NUEVA ECIJA UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY What are the characteristics of plants? Cork/Banakal NUEVA ECIJA UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY What are the characteristics of plants? Poison ivy, (Toxicodendron radicans), poisonous vine or shrub of the cashew family (Anacardiaceae), native to eastern North America. Nearly all parts of the plant contain urushiol. Note: Poison ivy is a plant that causes a rash due to an allergic reaction to an oily substance called Scientific name: urushiol. This resin is present in poison ivy, poison Toxicodendron radicans oak, and poison sumac. Common name: Poison ivy NUEVA ECIJA UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY What are the characteristics of plants? A cell wall is defined as a rigid, external layer that is specifically designed to provide structural support and rigidity. It also keeps the interior components of the cell intact and safe from the external environment. Cell Wall NUEVA ECIJA UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY What are the characteristics of plants? Lignin is found in the cells, cell walls, and between the cells of all vascular plants. Lignin is one of the main components of plant cell wall that makes a plant very durable. Lignin extensively contributes to plant growth, tissue/organ development, lodging resistance and the responses to a variety of: biotic and abiotic stresses NUEVA ECIJA UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY What are the characteristics of plants? damage caused by: Abiotic stress includes: insects temperature herbivores ultraviolet radiation nematodes salinity fungi floods bacteria drought or weeds. heavy metals, etc., which results in the loss of important crop plants globally, NUEVA ECIJA UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY What are the characteristics of plants? White blister disease Caused by: Albugo candida NUEVA ECIJA UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY Branches of Biology NUEVA ECIJA UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY Branches of Biology NUEVA ECIJA UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY Origin and Evolution  NUEVA ECIJA UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY Bryophytes: Bryophytes is the informal group name for mosses, liverworts and hornworts. They are non-vascular plants, which means they have no roots or vascular tissue, but instead absorb water and nutrients from the air through their surface (e.g., their leaves). Ferns: A flowerless green plant with long stems and has leaves like feathers. Ferns generally reproduce by producing spores. Similar to flowering plants, ferns have roots, stems and leaves. Gymnosperms: Seed-producing plants, including conifers like pines and spruces, that have naked seeds not enclosed in fruit. Angiosperms: Flowering plants that produce seeds enclosed within fruits, such as apples and roses. PHYLOGENY  NUEVA ECIJA UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY Evolution of Plants Green algae (Charophytes) - ancestors of Plants plants, green algae as well as land dwellers are monophyletic (of a group of organisms) descended from a common evolutionary ancestor or ancestral group, especially one not shared with any other group. NUEVA ECIJA UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY Evolution of Plants DID YOU KNOW? LUCA (the Last Universal Common Ancestor). NUEVA ECIJA UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY Evolution of Plants more than 500 million years ago, the algal ancestors of plants may have carpeted moist fringes lakes and coastal salt marshes Plants and green algae called charophytes ⚬ have complex multicellular bodies ⚬ photosynthetic eukaryotes ⚬ algae do not have tissues like plants NUEVA ECIJA UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY Evolution of Plants Modern stoneworts may be similar to the earliest plants. Shown is a field of modern stoneworts and an example from the Charophyta, a division of green algae that includes the closest relatives of the earliest plants. NUEVA ECIJA UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY Evolution of Plants Fun fact! The first land plants may have been similar to liverworts like this one. NUEVA ECIJA UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY Evolution of Plants Algae have no rigid tissues supported by water obtain carbon dioxide and mineral directly from the water receive light & perform photosynthesis over most of their body use flagellated sperm that swim to fertilize an egg disperse offspring by water NUEVA ECIJA UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY Evolution of Plants Life on land offered many opportunities for plant adaptations that took advantage of: ⚬ unlimited sunlight ⚬ abundant carbon dioxide ⚬ initially few pathogens or herbivores  NUEVA ECIJA UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY Evolution of Plants Unlimited Sunlight: On land, plants had access to more sunlight than in aquatic environments, where light is often limited by water depth and turbidity. This abundance of light allowed plants to enhance their photosynthesis, leading to increased growth and energy production. Abundant Carbon Dioxide: Air has much more carbon dioxide compared to water, which is vital for photosynthesis. This abundance allowed plants to efficiently convert CO₂ into sugars, supporting larger and more complex structures. Initially Few Pathogens or Herbivores: When plants first colonized land, there were fewer organisms adapted to feed on or attack them. This reduced the immediate threat of disease and herbivory, giving plants more time to establish themselves and evolve defenses. NUEVA ECIJA UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY Evolution of Plants Disadvantages of plants on land must maintain moisture inside their cells to avoid dessication must support their body in non- buoyant medium must reproduce and disperse offspring without water must obtain resources from soil and air NUEVA ECIJA UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY Evolution of Plants Plant adaptations to life on land develop structures to avoid dessication sperm reaching the egg without the use of water NUEVA ECIJA UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY Evolution of Plants The cuticle cuts down water loss in two ways: it acts as a barrier to Pictomicrograph of plant’s cuticle evaporation and also the shiny surface reflects heat and so lowers temperature. NUEVA ECIJA UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY Evolution of Plants Did you know? The outer layer of the Taro leaf is coated with a waxy cuticle. This cuticle primarily serves to block the movement of water into or out of the leaf. It also what allows Taro leaves to be water repellant. Plants that grow in the hot climatic environment possess thick cuticles. NUEVA ECIJA UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY Evolution of Plants Plants evolved mechanisms like pollen, which can be transferred by wind, insects, or animals, enabling sperm to reach the egg without requiring water for reproduction. Pollen is essential for sexual reproduction of flowering plants and plants that produce cones. Each pollen grain contains male gametes necessary for fertilization. NUEVA ECIJA UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY Evolution of Plants Colonization of the Land ⚬ Waxy cuticle ⚬ Specialized opening known as stomata for gas exchange Efficient conducting system which includes xylem for transport water and minerals from the roots to stem and leaves. Phloem for transporting products of photosynthesis to all parts of the plant NUEVA ECIJA UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY Evolution of Plants  NUEVA ECIJA UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY Evolution of Plants Phloem and Xylem Xylem transports and stores water and water-soluble nutrients in vascular plants. Phloem is responsible for transporting sugars, proteins, and other organic molecules in plants. Vascular plants are able to grow higher than other plants due to the rigidity of xylem cells, which support the plant. NUEVA ECIJA UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY Evolution of Plants chloroplast is a type of plastid (a saclike organelle with a double membrane) plants can make its own food through photosynthesis!! NUEVA ECIJA UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY Evolution of Plants Roots are vascular organs that can penetrate soil and even rock. Roots evolved from rhizoids, which nonvascular plants had used for absorption. NUEVA ECIJA UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY Evolution of Plants Fibrous root system: It appears as a large and equal-sized root, which originates from the base of the stem by replacing a primary root. Fibrous roots possess a bushy appearance and consist of thin root fibres. Example: Wheat, rice, maize grass etc. NUEVA ECIJA UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY Evolution of Plants It is the primary root that arises from the radicle of the seeds. The taproot gives rise to secondary lateral roots which further form tertiary lateral roots. It is straight and thick in shape and usually tapers at the bottom. The taproots grow well in a deep and mineral enriched soil. Rootlets are defined as the small branches of roots that form from the main root and helps the plant for the absorption of water and minerals as they increase surface area. TAPROOT NUEVA ECIJA UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY Evolution of Plants Adventitious roots are plant roots that form from any non-root tissue and are produced both during normal development and in response to stress conditions, such as flooding, nutrient deprivation, and wounding. ADVENTITIOUS ROOT NUEVA ECIJA UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY Evolution of Plants A taproot is a type of root system found in many plants. It consists of a single, thick main root that grows downward and from which smaller lateral roots branch off. This primary root is called the "taproot Example: Turnip, carrot, sweet potato TAP ROOT NUEVA ECIJA UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY Classification of Plants NUEVA ECIJA UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY Vascular: Plants with tissues (xylem and phloem) for transporting water and nutrients. Non-Vascular: Plants without vascular tissues, such as mosses and liverworts. Seedless Plant: Plants that reproduce via spores rather than seeds, including ferns and mosses. Seed Plant: Plants that reproduce through seeds, including both gymnosperms and angiosperms. Angiosperms: Flowering plants that produce seeds enclosed in fruits. Gymnosperms: Seed-producing plants with naked seeds not enclosed in fruit, like conifers. Monocotyledons (Monocots): Plants with one seed leaf (cotyledon), such as grasses and lilies. Dicotyledons (Dicots): Plants with two seed leaves (cotyledons), including most flowering plants. Rosidae: A large subclass of dicots that includes plants like roses and legumes. Myrtales: A dicot subclass including plants like myrtles and guavas. Rostales: A dicot subclass with plants like roses and buckwheats. Geraniales: A dicot subclass including plants like geraniums and cranesbills. Sapindales: A dicot subclass that includes plants like maples and citrus fruits. NUEVA ECIJA UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY VASCULAR VS NON-VASCULAR PLANTS NUEVA ECIJA UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY NON-VASCULAR PLANTS NUEVA ECIJA UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY NUEVA ECIJA UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY GYMNOSPERMS VS ANGIOSPERMS NUEVA ECIJA UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY Zea mays are commonly known as corn or Pine trees are conifers and produce pine cones maize. It belongs to the group instead of flowers/fruits. The seeds are not angiosperms. Angiosperms are plants that enclosed and are naked. They are located on have a well-developed vascular system the surface of the scales of the pine cones. By (phloem and xylem for transportation of definition, pine trees are not angiosperms and food and water respectively) and produce are considered gymnosperms. reproductive flowers. NUEVA ECIJA UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY MONOCOT VS DICOT NUEVA ECIJA UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY NUEVA ECIJA UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY A cotyledon is the first leaf of the plant embryo and will be the first part of a plant to emerge from the seed. Single cotyledon plant- Coconut Double cotyledon plant- Mungbean NUEVA ECIJA UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY OTHER CLASSIFICATIONS NUEVA ECIJA UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY Based on water requirement Mesophytes – plants that require moderate supply of water. Fabaceae, Rosaceae, Poaceae Common name: Sun flower Scientific name: Helianthus annuus NUEVA ECIJA UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY Based on water requirement Xerophytes – plants live in deserts or dry places and can withstand scanty supply of water Cactaceae Common name: Saguaro Scientific name: Carnegiea gigantea NUEVA ECIJA UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY Based on water requirement Hydrophytes – those which thrive in watery or moist places and require abundant supply of water. Nelumbonaceae, Hydrocharitaceae Common name: Sacred lotus Scientific name: Nelumbo nucifera NUEVA ECIJA UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY Based on water requirement Halophytes – those which live in watery places but in which the water is contaminated with salt Rhizophoraceae, Acanthaceae, Lythraceae, Combretaceae, and Common name: Mangrove Scientific name: Rhizophora mangle Arecaceae NUEVA ECIJA UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY Based on habitat or environment location Aquatic plants – lives in water Poaceae, Iridaceae, Nelumbonaceae NUEVA ECIJA UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY Based on habitat or environment location Terrestrial plants – lives on land Anacardiaceae, Fabaceae, Common name: Pea Scientific name: Lathyrus oleraceus NUEVA ECIJA UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY Based on their life duration Annual plants – live for one year or only one growing season. Asteraceae Common name: Annual daisy Scientific name: Bellis annua NUEVA ECIJA UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY Based on their life duration Biennial plants – live for two years. First year is mainly limited to vegetative growth, second year is reproductive year Liliaceae Common name: Carrot Scientific name: Daucus carota NUEVA ECIJA UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY Based on their life duration Perennial plants – live from year or more than two years Solanaceae, Lauraceae, Musaceae Common name: Banana plant Scientific name: (Musa acuminata × balbisiana) NUEVA ECIJA UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY Based on their body appearance Trees – woody plants with single main stem which is commonly about 20 ft in length Common name: Narra Scientific name: Pterocarpus indicus NUEVA ECIJA UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY Based on their body appearance Shrubs – any woody plants that has several stems usually shorter than trees. Shrubs are medium-sized, woody plants that are taller than herbs but shorter than trees, typically ranging from 6 to 10 meters in height. They have bushy, woody stems with multiple branches. Common name: San Francisco plant Scientific name: Codiaeum variegatum NUEVA ECIJA UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY Based on their body appearance Herbs – plants with soft or succulent stem Common name: Oregano Scientific name: Origanum vulgare NUEVA ECIJA UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY Based on their body appearance Vines – climbing or twining plants, with stems which may be tender or tough Common name: Grape Scientific name: Vitis vinifera L. Service About Us Contact