Big Anatomy and Physiology Notes PDF

8/15 Unit 1: org 1 Sternocleidomastoid: Attaches to the sternum, the Clavicle, then the mastoid(which is the the back of the head are) -This muscle allows you to flex the head, which lets you look down (reflection, flex) -When you decrease the angle of the part it is considered flexing. The...

8/15 Unit 1: org 1 Sternocleidomastoid: Attaches to the sternum, the Clavicle, then the mastoid(which is the the back of the head are) -This muscle allows you to flex the head, which lets you look down (reflection, flex) -When you decrease the angle of the part it is considered flexing. The closer to ovulation intercorse is, the more likely the child would be a boy? - Is this correct? 8/16/24 Unit 1: org 1 Anatomy and physiology: Anatomy: -Structure and location ex) The small intestine is 20ft long and has villi and microvilli Physiology: -function ex) Villi and microvilli increase surface area so that the small intestine can absorb nutrients eaten. Surface area is needed to promote better diffusion -food goes into the small intestine, and then absorbed into the body when going through -People who are morbidly obese cut their small intestine out which reduces the amount of calories. Levels of organization: - atoms, macromolecules Atoms → molecules ---> Cells → Tissues ----> organs ---> Organ system ----> Organism They are in this order because they build on each other, echo one from the tier below make the next one. ex) many cardiac cells make the tissues together, then tissues together make the heart Opposite is the extension. Organ body systems: There are 11 body systems Allot of these systems work together to do process ex) Circulation - Is catalyzed with the help of the Microscopic: Histology vs Cytology Cells who have smaller cell walls specialize in diffusion ex)lung cells More layers of cells lead to more protection, so that's where you don't want things to leave or go inside. ex) Blader Anatomical position: Standard position Abdominopelvic regions: Gastric - stomach iliac can be substituted with inguinal (in-gween-al) Directions are always in the perspective of the patient, so it would be the patients right side, rather than your Lumbar - lower back, below ribs, above hips. 8/19 Unit 1: Org 1 Directional terms: (used to clarify were they are talking about specific Anterior - front of body Posterior/dorsal -back of body Medial - toward the middle Lateral - toward the side ex) nose to the eyes, (medial, anterior Superficial - on the surface Deep- inside ex) Mussels are superficial to your bones. Mussels are deep to your skin Supine- facing up (like actual face) Prone - facing down (like actual face) ex) Face down in your bed person is prone Proximal - Closer to point of attachment of limb to the abdomen Distal - farther to paint or attachment of limb to abdomen. 8/20/24 Unit 1 Org 1 Body planes Sagittal, frontal(coronal) Transverse.: Transverse plane: -divides something into a superior and inferior portion. (top and bottom Frontal plane -Divides something into the anterior and posterior (front and back Sagittal: -divides something into midsagittal (perfectly even right and left halves), parasagittal (uneven right and left sides). Left and right Body cavities Notice how Cranial cavity goes through holes of the spine. Abdominal pelvic- cover all the spaces in the 9 square Abdominal region squares. 8/21/24 Unit 1: Org 1 Homeostasis: Everything wants to have a consistent unchanging environment. -Environment around body cells should remain constant -Dynamic equilibrium -Auto regulation (regulating without having to think about it) - like breathing -extrinsic regulation- doing things to help maintain homeostasis (like putting cooling towel on ) 8/23/24 Unit 1: Org 1: Homeostasis : body is maintaining a constant environment, needed to survive. 4 parts of the homeostatic cycle Effector; The thing that reacts to the integrator ( you sweat because your body tells you its hot) Variable: Thing that causes the change in the environment ( Cold winds) Sensor; perceiving thing that sense message to brain that you feel that ( if its cold you sense it) Integrator: take in the information (ex - the brain) Homeostatic control Variable → Sensor ---> Integrator ---> Effector ---> variable…. Set point - is the line or stat that your stat well hover around when maintaining equilibrium and homeostasis. desired value Sensor cells/ Receptor - detects and react to any changes Integrator/Control center - information is analyzed and integrated and then, if needed a specific action is initiated (always the nervous system such as brain and spinal cord) Effector - Responds to the control center to oppose or enhance the stimulus. Feedback loops Negative vs positive - Negative Inhibitory (well stop something from getting too high or too low), Stabilizes variables, produces an action that is opposite to the change that activated the system, ex) Temperature regulation regulation of blood C-2, regulating glucose levels. - positive Stimulatory (if value is high it well make it higher and vise versa), amplifies the change occurring- produces destabilizing effects and disrupts homeostasis, ex) sneezing ,blood clotting, nursing (more suckng the more milk will be produced), labor and delivery. 8/26/24: Unit 1 Org 1 - Org 2 Diagnostic strategies: X-ray: Light is put through, denser things deflect more light, so they appear brighter in the Xray, uses radiation waves. Denser things are more visable CT (computed tomogrophy) - CT scan : A lot of xrays taken and the computer puts the picture together. MRI ( Magnetic resonance imaging) - A lot clearer image, but more expersnive then CT scan. It is a loud process which uses magnes to take images, joins them via computer PET (positron emission tomography): Use isotope of sugar, radioactive sugar, the sugar lights up when PET scan happens becuase they hold the radioactivity. PET scans show how active the cancer spot is not how big it is. Ultrasound - Safer to use bceause it does not use radiation, rather sound waves that reflect aginst objects. Digital subtaction angiography - Inject dye into the blood stream, can signify that there is a bloodclot in the area. 8/27/24 Unit 1 Org 2 & ch 2 Chemistry Number of electrons when it is the default element is the same as the # of protons. Protons determine what the element is. #p +#n = atomic mass #p = #e 8/28/24 Unit 1 Org 2 Nitrogen, hydrogen, oxygen, carbon make up 96% of all living things. Mass is really only from the nucleus because electrons are insignificant to the weight. Valence shell - 1st shell holds 2, 2nd shell hold 8, 3rd shell holds 8. NH3 = ammonia Componiant in urine 8/29/24: Unit 1 Org 2 Atom vs molecule Atom Only 1 in # H,C,O Molecule: More than 1 in # ex) H2,03 Anytime you want ot build a molecule you require energy. Element Vs compounds: Element: -Cannot be broken down into two or more different substances ex)O2,H2 Compounds: -More than one kinds, of element joined together. ex) H20, C6H12O6,CO2 Unit 1 Org 2 8/30/24 Ion - have different numbers of electrons, so the protons and electrons well not be balanced. Isotope- has different # of neutrons than expected ex) used as a diagnostic tool (like sugar for pet scans) Unit 1 Org 2 9/3/24 Dehydration Synthesis - bind parts of molecules together by taking away a combined water between them. Total of waters created from the combination = n-1 (were n is the amount of molecules you start with). Isotope Example: Ms noche gets a water isotope solution pushed up the uterus to see if the hole is blocked (if the hole is blocked you cant conceive). They ised The water isotime becuase it has a heavier properties (so it is able to clear the tubes/ see if the tubes are blocked, heavy water) Unit 1 Org 2 9/4/24 Electronegativity, is dependent on how close Close to the right the more electro negative. In water oxygen is electronegative, because oxygen is electronegative it is more greedy for electrons, so it well have a negative charge because it takes more electrons. The hydrogen is going to be more positive. H+ OH- Hydrogen bond - attraction between the oxygen in a water molecule connecting the the hydrogen of another water molecule. Hydrogen bonds arnt a real bond, it is just a attraction. Between a partial positive and a partial negative, (not specifically hydrogen) -Result from unequal charge distribution on molecules (electronegativity -Polar -weaker than ionic or covalent bonds. Opposite charges attract. Unit 1 Org 2 9/9/24 Attraction - Hydrogen bonds Cused by electronegativety, the electronagative attom in hydrogen bonds example the oxygen Opposite partial charges attract to other partial opposite charges. In ice, hydrogen bonds are stable However, in liquid water hydrogen bonds are constantly broken and reformed Ice is less dense because the bonds are spaced from eachother, because the bonds are all reaching out, and not really breaking. - thats why ice floats on water. When you freeze water in a waterbottle, it well expand beaue ice takes up more space. Hydro philic -Ionic compounds -polar covalent compounds ex ) salts, ions Hydrophobic -Covalent -Nonpolar ex)oil fats. Chemical reactions -INvolve the formation or breaking of chemical bonds -Synthesis A + B → AB -Decomposition AB ---> A +B How do these relate to chemical reactions hydrolysis vs Dehydration Synthesis -Use water to break -Synthesiszing something by taking away a combined water. Something down Endergonic - requires/ needs energy Exergonic - releases energy Endothermic - Absorbing heat. Exothermic - release heat Unit 1 9/10/24 Org 2 ATP - when you break one of the phosphate bonds it releases a lot of energy. PH: when pH > 7 it is basic pH < 7 it is acidic pH = 7 neutral. A higher H+ concentration well make the thing more acidic If a Higher OH- concentration well make the thing more basic. Notice how the concentration of hydrogen, and the tenth power it is to matches up with the acid. 9/11/24 Unit 1 Org 2 Strenght of the pH is depending on how pH is the concentration of hydrogen. pH = -log[H+] pH3 vs pH6 ==== pH3 is 1000x more acidic than pH6 An acid is any substance that increase the H+ concentration of a solution (you well have a higher amount of H’s in the solution A base is any substance that reduces the H+ concentration of a solution. + - + - HCL + NaOH -------> H20 + NaCl Opposite signs attract What happens inside us Our cellular process: Carbon +water = carbonic acid = Bicarbonate Acid Our body is more acidic when we are more active becuase you are breathing fast, our blood is slightly basic becuase it offsets the pH Shape of the protine is dependnet on its environment, the shape dictates function. Enzymes Charges from the environment can change the fold of the protein, thtas why you need to be in a certain environment. When you change the shape you change the function. If a molecules has oxygen you know that it is going to be polar because oxygen is extremely electronegative. If you see a charge attached to the molecule, it well always be polar. Things that effect the shape of a protein ( temperature, pH, 9/12/24 Unit 1 Org 2 Buffers -Stabilize pH by removing or replacing H+ ions ex) Alka Seltzer A buffer can control if you want to raise or drop pH. There to make sure that the pH is hovering at the right point. Buffer is the thing that is secreted, by things that secret them. Salts -Contain Ionic bonds -Acts as a neutral solute -Contains cation and anion ex)NaCl Acids -Releases H+ -Lowers pH -Proton donors ----- proton = H+ ex) Hcl Bases -Removes H+ -Raises pH -Proton acceptors ex)Drain cleaner 9/18/24 Unit 2 Org 3 Somatic cells vs Sex cells Somatic: Composite cells, has all the, body cells Sex cells: Sperm cells(job is to swim), eggs Nerves cell - communicates, is very stretched and stringed out. Every cell has different functions Structure impacts function Structure: Name and location Anatomy Often memorized. Function: What it does Physiology Will help you explain HOW and WHY. Unit 2 org 3 9/20/24 Phospholipid bilayer, Has the phosphate heads and the fatty acid tails Viscus vs Fluid, Fluid ahve the kinks in it, things can go across the membrane, however this coudl be bad if the membrain si really fluid ebcause too many things can go across the layer. Viscous, nothing really moves across the membrane, less things are able to move across When hot or cold your membrane changes, in fluidity for instance there well be more kinks in reaction to a cold environment so that you membrane can be fluid and vise versa. Cholesterol works as a glue and a spacer, It is locate near your fatty acids Cholestrol is good, however a lot if it is really bad fo you, becuase it can clog up your arteries of veins or passages, and bcecause you have platelets it can cause clogs. Org 3 Unit 2 9/24/24 Chromesomes ; What DNA looks like when it is ready to divide Chromatin: What dna looks like when it is running its function. This is loose and abl to be transcribed. Histones: Proteins that allow DNA to tightly pack around it. Nucleosomes: Tight clumps of Histones. Nuclear pores: mRNA leaves out of the nuclease through these pores, becuase regular DNA is too large Nucleoli: make RNA and ribosomes, this acts like the nuclease inside the nucleus. Ribosomes: Make proteins, travel to the golgi apparatus. They sandwich the mRNA from the nuclease. Golgi apparatus: sorts and ships proteins/ produces to be sent outside the cell. Endomembrane system : Nuclear envelope is were mRNA comes from, Ribosome comes from rough ER, Protein made by the ribosome leaves as vesical, these vesicles are carried by dynein(walks it) and fuses into the golgi apparatus, leaves golgi in vesicle were it is edited, fuses out through plasma membrane, performing exocytosis (secreating things outside the cell, things exciting the cell). Nuclear envelope, endoplasmic reticulum, golgi apparatus, lysosomes, vacuoles/vesicles, plasma membrane. Org 3 Unit 2 9/25/24 Endocytosis = absorption, When something is coming into the cell. Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (smooth ER) -synthesis of lipids -Metabolism of carbs -Detoxification of drugs and poisons When you drink alcohol, the smooth ER responds by detoxifying it, however the more you drink it well condition the smooth ER, it well be stronger. When you drink alto the smooth ER becomes more numerous, so you get better at tolerating the toxins, in your liver is were you have the most smooth ER, because your liver is responsible for detoxification. If someone keeps drinking and drinking, the amount of smooth ER well be abundant, there for there is less space for the other organelles, so then they well not work as well, leading to cell death. When cells die they get replaced by connective tissue. When enough cells die its called cirrhosis, sever scaring, liver does not work anymore. Org 3 Unit 2 9/26/24 Cytoskeleton: Microtubules - Big, boba straw looking ones (capable of being broken and reformed), give dynen a thing to walk on Microfilaments - look like a ladder, really small, inside the cell (capable of being broken and reformed) Helps change the cells shape. Structure of the cell, when borken it changes shape Intermediate filaments - In Between sized, do not break/reform. Protects DNA from being damaged inside the nucleus. Like the skull of our brain. Org 3 Unit 2 9/27/24 The cytoskeleton is made of proteins, Why Microtubule is borken, it can change the path of were dynen can take a vesical Microfilaments are broken which changes the shape of the cell. Microvilli - additionally membrain pieces, to increase surface area of cell, so there is more transport across cell. Increase absorption or secretion. Small intestine absorbs food, it has a lot of microvilli inside of it becuase its job is absorption and it needs the macrovilli for extra surface area and absorption. Centrioles - are the things that make spindles, help with cell division. Spindles -pull on the chromosomes in cell division Cillia - several shorter tails, push things along, wave things by to help them move. They are in the fallopian tube, push the egg across it. Like crowd surfing. If these dont work in the fallopian tube, it well result in a ectopic pregnancy, painful for the mom becuase the tube is so small, and the baby is small. Does not develop the baby correctly. Flagella - assist sperm in swimming, tail ike structure, whip like movement. Intermembrane of mitochondria increase surface area, allow for ATP creation. Lysosome and peroxisome - break down lipids, Org 3 Unit 2 10/1/24 Concetration gradient : Difference in concentration Transport - Active: To create potential energy -Maintains a concentration gradient Against the gradient (from low to high concentration) Requires carriers Require energy Vs Passive: Maintains homeostasis Moving something on the gradient (from high to low concentration) No carriers (except for facilitated diffusion) Does not require energy. Diffusion : movement of any particle, Lysosomes, the cell's recycling centers, use acid hydrolases to break down waste into reusable parts through autophagy and crinophagy. Peroxisomes protect cells by isolating and breaking down harmful hydrogen peroxide into water and oxygen. These organelles ensure efficient and safe cellular function. Org 3 Unit 2 10/3/24 Osmosis is the movmentof water. to through a permissible membrane, water goes to the high concentration. Water always wants to move to dilute the high solute concentration. Tonic means concentration Low - hypo - hemolysis High - hyper - crenation Same - iso Org 3 Unit 2 10/8/24 Big things and ions are not able to go though the lipid bilayer Big things are too big Ions have changes and the tails of the bilayer have changerds To get these ions and big things through the membrane, you have to have a carrier, Membrane create compartment that are not in equilibrium. Facilitated diffusion (high to low, but uses a carrier ebcause some things goirg through are of charges or too large) Connective tissue: -Supports,connects. Transports, defends -Most widespread and abundant matrix(all things outside of the cells) Has a great deal of variability from the predominant, varied matrix (fibreas and flud) Fibers: Collagen fibers (dense regular; paralell )- strait binds, are to be strong densely packed (in tendons and ligaments, tendons connect muscles to bone, ligaments connect bone to bone) A vascular meaning it has no blood vescles. Becuase it has no blood vessels it doesn’t well heal a lot slower, denser thicker stronger. Parrallel, the strength of the pull is in one direction Diffrent kind of collagen fibers(dense irregular; not parallel): -Bundles of collagenous fibres intertwined in swirling arrangements -Can withstand stresses applied from anydirection -located in dermis, fascia around muscles, capsules around kidneys and spleen All in different directions, not parallel so they can pull in many directions, not that strong though -when you get injured, this is what scaring is, these kind of tissues Reticular fibers - looks kind of broken , helps you filter (looks like cherry blossoms). Elastic fibers - stretchy, looks like it’s wavy it can stretch, bent and wavy, thinner not that thick If firbres haves waves in it, they can stretch, fibrocartilage Tissue: Has: fibrocytes collagenous fibers elastic fibers Macrophages mast cells, Job; provides support but permits movement, phagocytic cells provide defense, around blood vessels nerves and organs Adipose tissue Is predominantly fat cells (adipocytes) Acts as protective padding,stores energy, insulates against heat loss Deep to skin @ breast, sides, buttocks. Blood: Has no fibers, just has cells (this is why blood can move) -Red blood cells (erythrocytes) - Transports O2 and Co2 (round has no nucleus) -White Blood cells (leukocytes) - destroys foeign substances( darker have nucleus) -Platelets (thrombocytes) - clot blood (larger denser ) Cartilage Chondrocytes(cartilage cells) in lacunae(spaces) Gel matrix Avascular. How does that affect the speed of healing? Hyaline cartilage Chondrocytes(cartilage cells) in lacunae(spaces) Gel matrix is shiny, smooth and translucent Reduce friction between bones Irregualr dense cartilage Dense Fibrocartilage - doesnt need to stretch absorbs shock Looks smooth Elastic cartilage Found at joints, rings of trachea, sternum Strongest Densly-packed collagenous fibers to resist compression Shock-absorber @ intervertebral disks and menisci Elastic fibers allows distortion and returns to original shape Found in external ear and larynx(vocal cord) Compact bone Has Haversian system -Haversian canal - big hole in center that has blood vessel(carries o2 and co2 -Lacunae- stripes near the center, were osteocytes live -Lamellae-layers of calcified matrixes (circles) -Canaliculi - tinny channel that lead haversian canal to lacunae -Osteocytes Strong bone but heavy Main saft of long bone Has a calcified matrix Cancellous (spongy) bone - -Trabeculae(red): internal support actual boney part -Red bone marrow ( Myeloid tissue) Makes blood (RBC,WBC, platelets) Makes it lighter Fibroblast - Fibrocytes - fiber cell Adipocytes - Mesenchymal cells - Melanocytes - cell that produces pigment Macrophages - Mast cells - Lymphocytes - Microphages. - Muscles Pieces of soft tissue through the body Assist you in doing everything active ○ There are many kinds of muscles that all have a large range of functions Movement/function may be voluntary or done without our conscious awareness ○ Without awareness would be something like breathing, and voluntary movement woud be something like reaching out your hand to catch a ball The 5 main things that our muscles do are ○ Movement, support, protection, heat generation, and blood circulation  They protect us by providing protection in of our internal organs. Our mussles are capable of absorbing shock and reducting friction in the joints They create force and movement ○ Muscle cells contain “Sarcomere” Sacromere is a contractile unit of muscle fiber. ○ Sacromere contain protein, myosin these proteins power the muscle to contract by grabbing onto another, in the act of flexing They attach to a the tendon ○ The tendon is a fibrous connective tissue that attaches muscle to bone. Stripes are perpendicular to muscle fiber. Skeletal Cardiac Smooth(visceral) Location? Attached to bones Lines the heart Lines hollow organs Striations? Yes Yes no Voluntary? Yes no no # of nuclei per 100’s per cell; 1-5 per cell 1 per cell cell Additional info Maybe 1` long Have intercalated disk How do these contract? Skeletal have a lot of nuclei because you tear your muscles when you do exercise, they can help you repair the damaged mussel that is damaged. Nuclei are responsible for creating protein. Cardiac muscle have intercaliadic disk, they help the heart muscle contract all at once Nervous Tissue Conduct electrical activity to rapidly regulate adn thereby integrate the activities of different parts of the body In brain, spinal cord, and nerves Consist of neuroglia Neuoglia help support the neurons Brain mater, (dark part of cell, ) white matter (axions) Myelin sheath are responsible for surrounding the axons. See axon and road of ranvier 10/29/24 Epitheal tissue: Everytime you see epetheal tissue itll be next to a white space. You well always see a white space when looking at the epetheal tissue. Locations include digestive, respiratory, reproductive, and urinary tracts. Attches to linnings(like a urinary lining tract) via the basement membrane, They also make grands that secrease fluids (there are many different glands that secret different things) Like your skin. Functions? Protection - frequently undergoes mitosis Controls permeability Sensory functions - make sure you dont eat anything too spicy or what not. Avascular (little blood vessels) therefore speed of healing is slow. How to classify epitheial tissue: (by layers and shapes Simple - 1 layer Stratified -multiple layers Pseudostratified - 1 layer oddly shaped columnar cells. Some cells may not reach to the surface so some nuclei appear at top, some at bottom Squamous - flat, platelike allows for a lot of diffusion Cuboidal - cube-shaped Columnar - taller than wide may have cilia, microvilli, or goblet cells (secrete mucus) Transitional - many layers of differing cell shapes. (allow organ who has it to stretch) Alveoli - lung tissue, simple squamous epithelium. Protection - stratified squamous (thick multi layered) can be found in the mouth or on skin. If on skin, it is there and things do mitosis under, keeps replacing layers. Moving up, Simple columnar - can secret, has room for a endo membrain system. Simple cuboidal - can secret things, is found in kidneys. They are tube shaped, they secret urine into the tube. Phsudo stratified - in upper resretory tract, can do exocytosis. Transitional, has so many odd shaped cells, found in the bladder, a lot of layers Squamous - flat cells, oval shaped nuclei Cuboidal - square shaped cells with large round nucli Columnar - Tall, rectangular cells, elongated oval shaped nuclei Simple squamous also does filtration. Epithelial tissue: Stratified squamous: -Good barrier keeps things on the slide it needs to be, protection easily replaced, Can be found on skin or esophagus. Simple squamous : Smoking well limit diffusion, Air is what fills the white spaces Thin so it allows for diffusion Lumen - white space Strified squamous, Carritinized is the dead layer of the skin If it has dead layers of skin you want it on your skin. Transtional: Bladder Stretch Simple cuboidal Glands and kidneys Secretion Connective tissue: Recticular tissue - Filters Found in spleen and lymph nodes Has recticular fivers Dense irregular Collagenous fibers Allow strength in multiple directions Under skin, dermis Adipose tissue -fat fills up white spaces, the fat is there to insulate, pad, keep stored energy Found under the skin, on your sides Hyline cartilage Gel matrix In joints - reduces friction Has chondrocytes Dense regular Strength in one direction Found in tendons and ligamesn Collagenous fibers Avascular, slow to heal Compact bone Has calcified matrix Has osteocytes Haversian canal gets blood , canaliculi, to lacunae to osteocytes Ring in center is lymeli In blood plasma is the liquid matrix, the nucliated cells are white blood cells Canclous bone (songy) Lighter, not as dense Trabeculae is the bone structure Holds red bone marrow Fibrocartilage - looks a lot like dense regular (make sure you know how to differentiate them.) Fibrocartilage has lacunia, while dense regular doesnt. Areaolar - has colagenous and eastic Elastic cartilage - looks very scary Org 5 Unit 3 11/13/24 Integumentary System (ch5) Layers of the skin Dermis - thick (deep of skin) - has dense regular Epidermis - thin most superficial layer of the skin, has stratified squamous. Hair, in the hypodermis there are glands, these glands may secrete oil, Hypodermis (below the dermis) - helps anchor the skin to deeper tissues. It has tissues You want oil on your skin ebcause if it is not soft Keratinocytes make keratin -Make up several layers There is a muslce that contracts when it is cold, and the hair stands up. It helps you make a cushion of warm air (arrector pili muscle) (this makes goosebumps). The hair standing up makes a cushion of warm air around you. We aslo have nerve endings (heps us feel things in our skin. Connective tissues (dense irregular connective, adipose) Epithelial tissue (stratified squamous) Because it has so many tissues its considered a organ The skin is the largest organ making up about 16 % of ones total body weight. It is were a lot of our fat is located (80%) You secreate oil and sweat out your skin (columar or cuboidal) Produces melanin and keratin - Gives people skin color, gives people more protection from sun, people who deve Mellinan is made by a malanocyte Keratin - water proofs the skin Keratinocytes make Keratin - Makes up several layers of tough, fibrous protein that waterproofs skin Melanocytes make Melanin - filters out UV light and contributes to skin color Strata epidermis Stratum corneum: Composed of dead expandable squamous cells that continually get shed and replaced -desmosomes hold adjacent cells together so skin layers are in sheets Barrier from water trama microorganism (extra protection) 15-30 layers of keratinized cells -Helps with regulation of body temperature -Insensible perspiration, sensible perspiration, and oil mixed with sloughed cells provides additional barrier. (allows for extra layers for protection) - the extra layer of oil and sweat protects you. Stratum Lacidum: -Cells are flattened, densely packed, without organelles and filled with keratin -Layer is absen in thin skin, but very apparent in palms and soles of feet Stratum granulosome (granular layer) -Has lysomal enzymes because cells here are starting to degenreta but can still make keratin -May be missing in some regions of thin skin (when you get older your skin gets thin, then you ahve less of this stuff to keep you from having wrinkles) Stratum spinosum (spiny layer) -Keratinocyes are bound together by desmoseomes -Dendritic cells stimulate defence against microorganisms and superficial skin cancers Stratum basale/germinativum (base layer) -weave into basement membrane and areolar tissues of dermis Basal cells of germinative steam cells to replace superficial ketatinocytes -Sensitive to touch releasing chemical to stimulate other nerves -Contains melanocytes. Intercellular junctions Tight junctions -Forms belts around cells prevent leakage of extracellular fluid (woven togehter) Desmosomes -Function like rivits, gluing cells together (connects sheets of the epidermis together) Gap junctions - Channels between cells allowing communication of ions, etc (allow communctation) Skin color is due to : Melanin -Pheomelanin -Eumelanin UV radiation carotene Hemoglobin in blood Sun exposure creates vitamin D, Helps to absorb calcium, well help bone creation/structure Blister - water goes between epidermis Papilary layer -Contains capillaries,l ypatic vessels, and sensory nerves -Areolar tissue -dermal papilae (finger prints) -Gives us fingerprints (friction ridges) -Allows us to grip and not slip Recticular layer -Collagenous fibers (leather) give toughness to skin -Some elastic fibers allow skin to rebound - Smooth muscle of arrector pili causes goosebumps You have a bulb of the hair, the muscle well move when you get cold, contracts and then brings the hair up and allows for a warm layer of air around the body. -Has Nerves and Blood vesles (constrict and dilated) Strech marks - when skin grows quicken then normal, in the dermis layer, dense irregular tissue Dermal growth and repair Langer's lines, well heal in the way were cut is not visible. If an incision cuts across tension lines, stress tends to pull the cut edges apart and may slow down the healing. Surgical incision parallel to tension lines are subjected ot less stress and tend ot heal more rapidly. Org 5 Unit 3 11/18/24 Dendric cells - find foreign antigens and present them to other immune cells for recognition and destruction Melanocytes - make melanin; (1)Stratum corneum: Composed of dead expandable squamous cells that continually get shed and replaced -desmosomes hold adjacent cells together so skin layers are in sheets Barrier from water trama microorganism (extra protection) 15-30 layers of keratinized cells -Helps with regulation of body temperature -Insensible perspiration, sensible perspiration, and oil mixed with sloughed cells provides additional barrier. (allows for extra layers for protection. (2)Stratum Lacidum: -Cells are flattened, densely packed, without organelles and filled with keratin -Layer is absen in thin skin, but very apparent in palms and soles of feet (3)Stratum granulosome (granular layer) -Has lysomal enzymes because cells here are starting to degenreta but can still make keratin -May be missing in some regions of thin skin (when you get older your skin gets thin, then you ahve less of this stuff to keep you from having wrinkles) (4)Stratum spinosum (spiny layer) -Keratinocyes are bound together by desmoseomes -Dendritic cells stimulate defence against microorganisms and superficial skin cancers (5)Stratum basale/germinativum (base layer) -weave into basement membrane and areolar tissues of dermis Basal cells of germinative steam cells to replace superficial ketatinocytes Intercellular junctions Tight junctions - forms belts around cells preventing leakage of extracellular fluid Desmosomes - function like rivets , gluing together cell together Gap junctions - Channels between cells allowing communication of ions, etc Callus are build in epidermis Skin color is due to : Melanin Phomelanin Eumelanin Uv retardation Carotene Hemoglobin in blood. Sun exposure creates vitamin D helps to absorb calcium and phosphate. Without this you can get rickets: Basement membrane: -Were cell division occurs -Glues the 2 layers together via polysaccharide gel -Have only a limited role in preventing passage of harmful chemicans and deseise causing The demis: Has fibrobalast- makes fibers - Collagenous - Reticular - Elastic Other important info: -does have nerves -Is thick on connective tissue -Fibrobalst can form dense connective tissues = scars and stretch marks -Langer lines (cleavage lines -location of permant tattoos. Strata of demis Papilary layer - Contains capilaries, lymphatic vessels and sensonry nerves Areolar tissue Dermal papilae - Gives us fingerprints (friction ridges - Allows us to grip and not slip Reticular later- - Collagenous fibers (leather) give toughness to skin - Elastic fibers allow skin to rebound - Smooth muscle of arrector pili causes goosebumps - Has nervesand blood vescles (constric and dilate) Demal growth and repare: If an incision cuts across tensio lines, stress tends to pull the cut edges apart and may slow down healing Sergical incisions parallel to tension lines are subjected ot less stress and tend to heal more rapidly. Hypodermis aka subcutaneous tissue (lowest layer of skin) -Areolar w/ adiposcytes (insulation, shock absorber, accumulate in certain regions based on sex) - Elastic -Blood reservoir (Blood vescle will constric as needed) -Hypodermis injections here) When you get a injection. The nedal goes into hypodermis Appendages - hair Part that goes outward Hair is part of your skin. Hair growth is not stimulated by cutting or shaving Balding = genetics + testosterone. Purpose of hair - We have it on head - insulate hair, and protection, protection from sun 9skin on head is very sensitive to that) In nostrils and ears we have it to filter dust and mites For eyelasthes 0 stops things from getting in eye, blocks pathogens, We have it on rest of skin to keep us warm, keep us dry (oil) Arrcetor pill Appendages - glands: Sebucous -prevent sdrying of skin and hair reduces fungus, inhinbbits bacteria -2/hair , none in palms and soles S - Sebum (oil) excess oil causes acne Ai - can cause acne Sweat (suboriferous Eccrine - Coll body Everywhere except for lips, nails, exterior ear S - sweat, salt ,ammonia, uric acid Ai - Most widespread and numerous Apocrine - F - Cool body L - Armputs, anus S - Viscous and colored Ai - odor from bacteria Ceruminous F- prevents dehydration S - cerummen L - external ear Ai - If hardens, then blockage (hearing loss) Deodorants - hides oder Antiperspriants - cover glands stops from producing speat Appendages - Nails Blood vessels under make nails pink Top is keratin When people get nails done, they take off layers of keratin, you put gell, it takes keratin off (1) Inflmmatory phase -Mast cells trigger infmitory responses, bleeding occures at the site of the injury (what this does is clense the area (2) Migratory phase - Scab forms at the surface, Patrolling microphages remove debris and pathogens -Rapid cell division and migration along wound edges to replace themissing cells (cells try to regenerate to replace the skin -remove debris and pathogens -Formation of granulation tissue (3) Proliferaiton phase, fibroblastr produce new collagen fibers and ground substances, (cells to make sure that the deeper part of cut are replaces (4) Scarring phase, when scar tissue formation (it is irregular tissue) Different types of tissues The longer lasting the tissue, the deeper they are in skin Perminate tissue - hypodermis Henna and mendy- in the demis Temporary tattoo - epidermis; Stratum granulosum Bruns and the rules of 9’s If body is divided into 11 parts of 9 Percent Org 5 Unit 3 11/19/24 Keratin - makes our skin water resistant We want vitamin D, because it helps us retain calcium Calcium makes our bones stronger, We need Calcium for our muscles, nerves and blood clotting If you don't have calcium, you don’t send nerves very well, your muscles don’t function as well, your blood won't clot as well. Coordinates immune responses - skin is the first line of defence If something passes the first line of line of defence, dendritic cells well say something and notify other cells about it and tells other cells to fight something. Basically, if something foreign crosses into the cell, then a dendritic cell well tell a white blood cell to go attack it, they work together to do so. However sometimes the dendritic cells can missjudge something that is not foreign to be foreign, which could cause bad issues. For instance, irritable bowel syndrome could be a result of this. Tight junctions - like popping a zit, overproduction of oil in a hole, you pop it, make oil come out, clear fluid when popping a zit, that is you messing with your tigh tjunctions,. Stratum granulosum (granular layer) The lysosomes make it grainy Stratum spinosum (Spiny layer) Is made spiny becuaes of the desmosomes Stratum basale/germinativum (base layer) Basal cells, or germinative (stem) cells replace superficial cells, Basement membrane is between epidermis and dermis Org 5 Unit 3 11/20/24 Melanin Eumelanin - cause colors like bron or black good one Pheomelanin - Causes red or yellow, not good ebcause it takes sun in and turns it into free radicals. Carotene - orange pigment in skin Hemoglobin in blood - hold oxygen, so when you hold a lot of it you are red. ABCD rule of detecting melanoma Asymmetrical (not symmetric when cut down middle) Indistinct border (No defined border) color is different throughout the blemish Greater than ¼ a inch. When you have lack of sun exposure, you dont ahve vitamine D, vitamen D helps you absorb calcium and phosphate, if you dont have this, then your spongy bone well have more poores, and your compact bone wont be as dense. Calculus form from friction Blister forms from friction and messing up the connection of epidermis and dermis and basement layer. Basement membrane glues epidermis to dermis, with polysaccharide gel Have limited role in prevening passage of chemics Demis: - Does of nerves - Is thick of connective tissue - Fibro blast forms the dense irregular connective tissue = scar and stretch marks. - Langers lines (lilke a finger print under your skin) Has certain directions, direction of fibres Org 5 Unit 3 11/21/24 Lnagers lines - The one with the line is smaller and is not a bad collor When you cut parallel/with the langer lines, it becomes less scared and there for well heal faster and be less scared. Scaring is dense irregualr Incision cut across langer lines, stress tends to pull the cut edges apart and may slow down healing Surgical incisions parallel to langer lines are subjected to less stress and tend to heal more rapidly. Stratum cornium: Location were temporary tattoo is, is dead already, flakes off. Stratum lucidum ; Stratum granulosum; Stratum spinosum; Stratum basale; Were henna tattoo is Perminant tattoo’s are in the dermis Strata of dermis Papilary layer -Contains capillaries(blood vessels), lymphatic vessels(has to do with immune system), and sensory nerves -Areolar tissue -Dermal papilae Gives us fingerprints (friction ridges) Allows us to grip and not slip Reticular layer -Collagenous fibers (leather) give toughness to skin -Some elastic fibers allow skin to rebound -Smooth muscle of arrector pili causes goosebumps -has nevers and blood vesles (constrict; close , and dilate ;widen) Hypodermis: Arealar w/ adipocytes (insulation, shock absorber, accumulate in certain regions based on sex, AKA superfical fascia -Elastic -Blood reservoir (blood vessle will contsrict - close - as needed) -Hypodermic injections here. Org 5 Unit 3 11/22/24 Appendages - hair Hair bulb Sebaceous glands sectreat oil, this oil is important to keep your skin and hair hydrophobic Root is located in the in the dermis Glands; Sebaceous: Sweat:: Ceruminous: Ear wax, doesnt allow things to go into body, Org 5 Unit 3 12/3/24 Notes extra: Appendages - Nails They are made out of keratin, shells made to protect karatin They grow faster in the summer -More sun more kinetic energy Burns: Rule of 9’s You have 11 regions of your body that are 9% each Bruns: First thickness - first degree First thickness then a little more - second degree Through all the skin layers - 3rd degree Can be from hot/cold electricity, chemicals.  1st degree 2nd degree 3rd degree Amount of pain Minor discomfort Severe Insensitive after injury (no pain) Characterized by Red skin Blistering scarring Follicles, sweat (Erythema) glands, and nerves endings destroyed Damage to Superficial Epidermis and upper Epidermis and dermis epidermis dermis is destroyed 4th - all the way to bone When the nevers grow back, they hurt because grows out and trys to find its partner, however becuase it is difficult for them to find eachother, it can result in pain. Sometimes when you have a bad burn, you need ot get a skin transplant that well allow your skin area to stretch, ebcause the tissue that grows back may be very weak The tissue and skin the grows back is not as stretchy and doesnt behave well, doesnt allow normal movement. Age changes Young: Skin heals quickly Elasticity in their skin Layer of fat under (smooth) However; sweat glands are not at optimum effciecy, therefore get red-faced to dissipate heat Adulthood @ puberty: Sweat glands = body odor Acne Sebaceous gland are overproducing, therefore skin is oilier (results in acne) Elderly: Sweat - less adaptable in warm temperature Sebaceous, skin and hair are less resilient (wrinkles & cracks) Gray hair because less melanin (melanocytes are not making melanin for their hair Bruises easily because blood vessels are more fragile. Skin cancer. Statges of melanoma: At stage 4, it r At stage 4 it runs into the blood vessles, so it can travel wherever the bloodvelle takes it. Benign Vs. Malignant Benign - slow growing, doesnt spread Maligant - develops quickly, spreads Org 5 Unit 3 12/4/24 Cancer classifications: Benign (localized) - slow growing; doesnt spread Malignat (invasive) - develops quickly; spreads newar and far ABCDD rule of detecting melanoma (skin cancer): Different types of skin cancer Basal cell carcinoma - Accounts for more than 90% of cases ; Least serious because it is slow to grow and spread Squamous cell carcinoma - Is more serious because it can spreads more readily to toher organs Malignant melanoma - Most serious because it spreads quickly; least common Lymphatic system: There to protect you when something bypasses the skin, internal infection Flow throught body Valve of the lymphnodes make sure fluid only goes in one direction, keep all the lymph in one direction Sinuses - spaces Germinal center - center of growth of immune cells Afferent lymph vessels - Vessels that help to go into lymphnode Efferent lymph vessels - Vessels that help exit the lymphnode Lymph is helped transported by the heart Org 5 Unit 3 12/5/24 There are clusters of lymph nodes in certain areas Lymphnodes take fluid out of blood to help fight deseise. - protecting us from infections Lymph fluid comes from the plasma of blood, however it doesnt have as much protines. You move lymph when you move Fluid part of blood comes out of blood streme, to be filtered through the lymph Node Germial center helps us grow immune system cells. When we run the fluid thoruhg it ‘cleans’ the fluid out. Lymph fluid -Like blood plasma however has less protiens Doesnt clot Isotonic with intersial fluid Lymph node -House cells that attack Lymphatic vessels Thin wall than veins more valves than vails Help connect the lymphnodes together. Capillaries are simple squamous, because it allows for the diffusion. Systemic circulation, circulation going through your system Pulmanary circulation - going through the lungs so the blood can be reoxygenated. Blood mixes at the capilaries, it is ‘purple’ color. Lymphatic capillaries, they are around the blood capilaries, plasma liquen from the blood diffuses to the lympatic capilaires, were it is then transported to the lymph node The capillary membrane thin, the fluid that it is coming from is from the blood plasma. It has less protines because when it does diffusion, less of the protines go thoutrhg because only specific proteins are able to go Lymphedema (edema- swelling) You are containing lymph in one area, and it causes the area to swell. Lymph valves, only allow it in one direction, this helps so there is not a build up of lymph fluid. When you dont move the lymph can not move, and it builds up in other places. Lymph only moves ebcause you are contracting muslces around it and using the mussels The thoracic controls a lot more of the lymph fluid than the right one. Lymph Nodes with name: Tonsils; pharyngeal tonsils (frathest back) , Palatine tonsil (on the sides Lingual Tonsils( most close to opening) Protects against invaders that may enter via the mouth or nose (some people may need to get them removed because it can block the air way, this is because some people have conditions in which their tonsils are always swollen even if you aren’t sick.) When you get a infection or something they swell up, which blocks the air way and protects you. Thymus: A gland that sits on top of the heart., in mediastium, inferior to thyroid Structure: Largest in a 2 year old. It involutes as one ages Thymus function; -final sites of lymphocyte dev’t before birth -thymosin matures T cells. T- cells tell the body when something bad enters the body, tells your body when to fight T - cells tattletale cells extra) HIV targes the T cells, there for your body is not able to see what to kill/what to fight, thats why people with it have odd infections, becuase the T cells would have protected you from them When not treated it becomes AIDS. Immune system is worst Spleen: Location: Inferior to diaphragm, posterior to fundus of stomach, superior to left kidney. Structure: Arteries send blood through areas of developing lymphocytes (recticular meshwork) then blood collects in venous sinuses and returns to the heart. Fucntion of sleep: Defense, Hematopoiesis (forms blood) - production of the blood cells process. Red blood cell destruction Platelet destruction Blood reservoir fact) Splenectomy - removing the spleen Innate vs acquired immunity Innate - what you are born with -Generic, recognition fo traits shared by broad ranges of Pathogens, using a small se to f receptors -Rapid responses -You are born with skin (protects you from outside Acquired immunity - what you develop -Recognition of specific to particular pathogens, using a vast array of receptors -Slower responses -ex) how you develop immunity to a flue when you fight it and beat it. Line of defences First line of defence: Barrier -Skin, mucous membranes secretion Second line of defence: Internal defences: -Phagocytic (phago cytosis(the cell eats) cells, Antimicroial proteins, Inflammatory response, Natural killer cells Third line of defence: -Humoral respones; Antibodies defend against infection in body fluids. -Cell-mediated response; Cytotoxic lymphocytes defend against infection in body cells. Glyco lipid and glyco protine tells them what and what doesn't belong. Barriers: Your skin, mucous membranes (digestive, respiratory, urinary, reproductive) w/ epithealial tissue (strafied squamous, ciliated psudostrat. w/ Goblet cells -Lysozymes in mucs, tears, saliva -Acid in stomach (pH 2) and from oil and sweat glands (pH 3-5) 2) Internal defenses -Leukocytes (AKA white blood cells) Recognize pathogens, Capable of phaocytosis, non specificlly eats any invader You have many types of them: - Neutrophils - Does phegocytosis, from blood traves to infected tissues (chemotaxis) Self destruct as they destroy - Monocytes - Alsodoes phegocytosis, developes into macrophages (big eaters) (Also are Eosinophils, Lymphocytes, Basophils) Natural killer (NK cells) cells -Destroy infected or abnormal cells withough class HMC (marker - that belongs to you) (like the logan ID you have) Org 5 Unit 3 12/10/24 Phagocytosis - to eat the cells Class 1 MHC - your marker, tell that cell belongs to you Dendritic cell (located in cell) -Look for things that are foreign -Bacterium is engulfed by dendritic cell Lysosome fuses with phagosome to digest the bacterium Creates a antigen - which signals that there are something foreign in the cell to the rest of the body Localized influamtio (sweeling) -More blood comes to the area, -inflamed Signaling molecuels, histamines are released, which causes swelling Calls other cells to come and kill pathogen Phagocytosis happens Localized responses: -Histamine from mast cells Dillation of precapillary arterioles Constriction of postcapillary venules Increased Permeability of blood vessles Attaction of phagocytes Sinse increased flow, more Red blooc cells, whilte blood cells and platlets come Systemic response: Increase in leukocyte count Pyrogens: Raise body temp. So fever Microbial growth inhibited Facilitate phagocytosis/speed healing tissues Org 5 Unit 3 12/10/24 Medication can be taken to get rid of a fever, fevers are good (if they are not too high) buecase it increases leukocyte count, and facilitates a faster healing of tissues. Fevers are helpful. 2nd line of defence: Complement systm: -30 protine cascde leading to cell lysis -Will circulate in inactive state, but will activate with microbial proitnes Lyces the cell Protines bind on forgn cell Binds to antibodies Interferios (interferes with growth) -Virus infected cells secretes these and nearby cells produce sibstamce that inhibit viral reproduction Enhance macrophages phagocytic ability 3rd line of defecne Acquired immunity - Lymphocytes -B lymypocytes (from bone marrow) and T lymphocytes (from thymus) They all have a Y or I shape, however the only thing different Org 5 Unit 3 12/10/24 Antigen - bad foreign thing Antibody - What you fight antigen with Acquired immunity Ability of the immune system to remember a specific antigen and be prepared for an attack -Primary immune response - 1st exposure -Second immune resonse - 2nd exposure; faster, stronger, and more effective Based on memory cells - long lived cells bearing receptors specific for an antigen after primary responses -Like the lybrary of your cells, they remember how to defeat something or what you need to defeat it. -Vacines expose you to the weaker version of the virus. Your body nows exactly what to do, and exactly instrucrs you to be able to fight; they just give you the foreign antigen, so that you can fight it. B lymphocytes (from bone marrow) and T lymphocytes (from thymus) Originates from stem cells in the bone marrow or liver of the fetus. Circulates in blood streem and lymph Concentration in speen, lymph nodes, and lymphatic tissue -Antigens: foreign molecules - viruses, bacteria, pollen, transplanted tissue, etc…. - Antibodies: produced by B cells in repsonse to antigens that provoke a specific response Specific antigens elicit the secretion of specific antibodies. Have millions of combinations. Therefore the body has the capacity to respond to millions of different antigenic molecules (even ones that don’t exist…..yet) Org 5 Unit 3 12/10/24 Cells that are in tissues are attacked by T cells (intracellular) Cells that are in fluid is attacked by B cells (extracellular) HIV attacks your T cells, that shy you get Dendritic cells, engolves the pathogen, infuses it, breaks it up, attaches proteins from bacteria and puts it on the outside of membrane to communicate to other cells of their findings of a pathogen Memory T cells are responded by helper T cells, memory helper T ceells tiger memory B cells and memory cytotoxic T cells (which then fight off the infection by finding the right code for the protines to fight it off) Goldilocks principle - Spectrum (of performances): Too little -Cancer -SCID -HIV -Transplants Just right Too much -Isoimmunity -Allergies -Autoimmunity