बिहार दरोगा सामान्य विज्ञान 2023 PDF

@RexstarPdf  @RexstarPdf lkekU; foKku ( lHkh izfr;ksxh ijh{kkvksa ds fy, mi;ksxh ) By : Suchit kumar @RexstarPdf  @RexstarPdf S.No. Chapters. P.No. 1. t...

@RexstarPdf  @RexstarPdf lkekU; foKku ( lHkh izfr;ksxh ijh{kkvksa ds fy, mi;ksxh ) By : Suchit kumar @RexstarPdf  @RexstarPdf S.No. Chapters. P.No. 1. tho foKku ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1-10 2. HkkSfrdh foKku ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 11-21 3. varfj{k foKku ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 22 4. jlk;u foKku -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 23-30 5. o`Qf"k ,oa i'kqikyu ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 31-32 6. i;kZoj.k ,oa ikfjfLFkfrdh -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 33 7. izeq[k oSKkfud % egRoiw.kZ rF; ------------------------------------------------------------------------- 34 8. Hkkjr ds izeq[k vuqla/ku laLFkk,¡ ----------------------------------------------------------------------- 35 9. foKku dh fofHkUu 'kk[kk,¡ ------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 35 10. ukfHkdh; HkkSfrdh ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 36 11. izeq[k vfo"dkkj ,oa muds vkfo"dkjd --------------------------------------------------------------- 36 12. izeq[k midj.kksa }kjk mQtkZ dk :ikarj.k -------------------------------------------------------------- 37 13. vory ,oa mÙky niZ.k esa izfrfcac dh fLFkfr ------------------------------------------------------- 37 14. izeq[k mRizsjd ,oa muds mi;ksx -------------------------------------------------------------------------- 37 15. izeq[k midj.k ,oa muds dk;Z --------------------------------------------------------------------------- 37 16. foKku ,oa izkS|ksfxdh -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 38 17. fpfdRl foKku laca/h egRoiw.kZ [kksts ----------------------------------------------------------------- 38 18. inkFkks± ds jklk;fud ue ,oa lw=k ----------------------------------------------------------------------- 39 19. foVkfeu ls lacaf/r egRoiw.kZ rF; ----------------------------------------------------------------------39 20. daI;wVj ,oa baVjusV ls lacaf/r 'kCn la{ski ------------------------------------------------------------40 21. ekuo 'kjhj ls lacaf/r egRoiw.kZ rF; ------------------------------------------------------------------40 22. HkkSfrd jf'k;ksa dh foek ,oa ek=kd-----------------------------------------------------------------------41 23. rRo ds ladsr ,oa mudh ijek.kq la[;k ----------------------------------------------------------------41 24. daI;wVj foKku ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 42 25. laiw.kZ czãk.M ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 43 26. oSKkfud dkj.k ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 44 27. foKku ,oa mlds izHkko ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 45 28. izeq[k fu;e ,oa fl¼kar ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 46 29. lkekU; foKku % fofo/ --------------------------------------------------------------------------------47-50 30. VsLV isij (û&÷ü) ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 51-122 @RexstarPdf  @RexstarPdf SPEEDY l kekU ; foKku 1 t ho foKku l kekU; i fj p;  nyguh i kS / ksadh t M+ ksaesai k; k t kusokyk  l cl scM+ hdksf' kdkgS& ' kq rqj eq xZd k v a Mk t hok.kqgS& j kbt ksfc; e  ekuo ' kjhj dh l cl sya ch dksf' kdk gS  foKku dh og ' kk[ kk ft l dsv a r xZ r l eLr  ok; q ea Myh; ukbVªkst u dksukbVªsV ds: i esa &U ;w j kW u ( ra f=kd k d ksf' kd k) l t hoksav FkkZ r ~t hoèkkfj; ksadkv è; ; u fd; k i fjofrZ r djrk gS& j kbt ksfc; e  ekuo ' kjhj esai kbZt kusokyh l cl sNksVh t krk gS ] dgykrk gS& t ho foKku dksf' kdkgS& l sjhcsy e d hxsU ;w y l sy d h  nw/ esai k; kt kusokykt hok.kq&yS DVkcsfSl yl  t ho foKku ' kCn dk i z;ksx l oZ i zFke fd; k ekuo ' kjhj esai kbZt kusokyh l cl scM+ h  ,afVl sfIVd l t Z j hdh[ kkst & t kslisQfyLVj  & yS ekd Z, oafVªfoj sul us1801 bZ ñ esa dksf' kdk gS& v a Mk. kq( Ovum)  t hok.kq v ka sdk oQ̀ f=ke l oa/ Z u&j kcWVZdkp s us  t ho , oat UrqfoKku dk t ud & v j Lr q  toS fodkl dksl oZ iF zke l e>k; k&yS ekdZuss  t hok.kq v ksaesajkbckslkse i k; k t krk gS& 70S d ksf' kd k d h l a j puk  fpfdRl k ' kkL=k dk t ud & fgIi ksØsV~ l i zksVkst ksv k  t hou dk HkkS frd v k/ kj gS & t hoæO;  Hkkjr esafpfdRl k dst ud & pj d skstkvs k gksrk gS& , d dkfs' kdh; t ho   i kzV t hoæO; dh [ kkst & Mqt kfMZu us  ouLi fr foKku dk t ud & fFk; ksÚsLVl  i kzV skstkvs k' kCn dki zFke i z;kxs& xkY l us  sMi Q t hoæ O; dkukedj.k& i jqfda t sus ] 1839 esa  Hkkjr esa' kY; fpfdRl k dst ud & l q Jqr  ^t hoæ O; t hou dkHkkS frd v k/ kj gS * fdl dk  ekuo dk fodkl ] bfrgkl ] i jEijkv ksal s  i kzV skstkvs kl a?kdst UrqgS&v ehck] ; X qyhuk] dFku gS& gsDl y sd k lacaf/ r fo"k; dgykrk gS& , U Fkzksiksy kW th Iy kt eksfM; e] , a Vv ehck fgLVksfy d k  ^t hoæO; fl ¼ka r * fn; k Fkk & ' kw Yt us  Historia Animalism i q Lrd gS& v j Lr qd h  gjk i zksVkst ksv k dgykrk gS & ; w Xy huk  i kni dksf' kdkv ksadkckgjhv koj.kdgykrk  Historia Plantorum i L qrd gS &fFk; kisQ zLVsl dh fo"kk. kq gS& d ksf' kd k fHkfÙk t ho/ kfj ; ksad k oxhZ dj.k  dksf' kdk fHkfÙk i kbZt krh gS  lal kj dk l w {ere t ho gksrk gS& fo"kk. kq & d soy i kni d ksf' kd kv ksaesa  t hoksadsv k/ q fud oxhZ d j.k ; k ofxZd h dk  fo"kk.kqdsv è; ; u dgykrkgS&okbj ksy kW th  dksf' kdk fHkfr cuhgksrh gS& l sy q y kst d h fi rkdgkt krkgS& d S j ksy l y hfu; l d ks  fo"kk.kqdh[ kkst & bokuko sLd hus1892 esa  dksf' kdk f>Yyh i k; h t krh gS  t hoksads ukedj.k ds f}uke i ¼fr dks  l k/ kj.kr%l Hkhfo"kk.kqcusgksrsgS& i zksVhu ipzfyr fd; k&dS j kys l yhfu; l us1753 es a & i kni , oat U r qnksuksaesa r Fkk U ;w fDy d v Ey RNA d s  dksf' kd k dks , d fuf' pr v kdkj , oa  i k¡p t xr oxhZ d j.k i ¼fr dksi zLrq r fd; k  fo"kk.kqdk v kdkj & 0.15 l s0.2 ekbØkW u & j kW cVZ, pñ fOgVsd j us] 1969 bZ ñ esa  jkl k; fud : i l sfo"kk.kqgksrk gS dksf' kdkaxksa dks l qj {kk i znku dj rh gS&  l eLr t hoksadk i k¡p t xr oxhZ d j.k gS& d ksf' kd k f>Yy h &U ;w fDy ; ksizksVhu  dksf' kdkf>Yyh( It kTekf>Yyh) cuhgksrh eksusjk] i zksfVLVk] d od ] i kni , oat U rq  l Hkhi zksd S fj; ksfVd t ho l fEefyr fd, t krs d ksf' kd k foKku gS& fy fi M , oai zksVhu l s gS& eksusjk t xr esa ekbVksd kW f. Mª; k  t hou dhew y Hkwr bdkbZgS & d ksf' kd k  eksusjk t xr ds l nL; gS& t hok. kq ]  dksf' kdk dh[ kkst & j kW cVZgq d us1665 esa  ekbVksd kW f.Mª; k dh [ kkst & v YVeS u us uhy &gfj r ' kS oky ( l kbuks&cS DVhfj ; k)  i zksd Sfj; ksfVd t hoksaesaughagksrkgS& d sU æd  t hfor dk f s' kdk dh [ kk t s & Y;w osu gkW d us  ekbVksd kW f.Mª; k uke fdl usfn; k & csU Mk us  , d dksf' kdh; ] ; w dS fj; ksfVd t ho l fEefyr  dk f s' kdk dk v è; ; u dgyk rk gS & Cytology  ekbVksd kW f.Mª; k ughagksrk gS & t hok. kqesa fd, t krsgS& i zksfVLVk t xr esa  dksf' kdk fl ¼ka r dksi zfri kfnr fd; k Fkk &  ekbVkd s kfW.Mª; kesai k; kt kusokykæ O; dgykrk  i zksfVLVk t xr dsl nL; gS ' y k bM u s , oa ' oku us( 1838&39 esa ) gS& eS fVªDl (Matrix) & ' kS oky ] d od ] i zksVkst ksv k  t ho/ k fj; ka s dh l j a puk R ed , oa fØ; k Red  ^dksf' kdk dk i kW oj gkml ( mQ t kZxg̀) *  ;w dS fj; ksfVd esami fLFkr gksrk gS& d sU æd bdkbZgksrh gS& d ksf' kd k dgk t krk gS& ekbVksd kW f. Mª; k d ks  dksf' kdk nksi zd kj dh gksrh gS  dkfs' kdkdk' ol u ds U ægS&ekbVkd s kfW. Mª; k t hok. kq & i zksd Sfj ; ksfVd , oa; w dSfj ; ksfVd  ekbVksd kW f.Mª; k esaÅt kZfdl : i esal a fpr  t hok.kqdh [ kkst & Y; w osu gkdWus ] 1683 esa  dsa æd , oadsa fædk ughai k, t krsgS jgrh gS& ATP d s: i esa  t hok.kqfoKku dk fi rk & Y; w osu gkW d & i zksd Sfj ; ksfVd d ksf' kd kv ksaesa  ATP dk fuekZ. k & ekbVksd kW f. Mª; k esa  t hok.kquke fn; k& , gj u s cxZus] 1829 esa  dsa æd , oadsa fædk mi fLFkr gksrsgS  ATP bdkbZgks r h gS & Åt kZd h  dksf' kdh; l a j pukokykNksVkt ho& t hok. kq &; w dS fj ; ksfVd d ksf' kd kv ksaesa  ozQ sCl pozQgksrk gS & ekbVksd kW f. Mª; k esa  t hok.kq v ksadh dksf' kdk fHkfr cuh gksrh gS  l cl sNksVh dksf' kdk gksrh gS  ozQsCl pozQdh [ kkst & gS U l ozsQ Cl us & E; w d ksisIVkbM d h & ekbd kIsy kTek xS fy l fsIVd e t hok. kqd h  ekbVksd kW f.M;ª kdkfny dgykrkgS& fØLVh  @RexstarPdf SPEEDY l kekU ; foKku 2 xkW Yt hd k;  VekVj es ayky jax dkdkj.kgS&y kbd ksihu  v kuq oaf' kdrk dh ew y bdkbZgS & t hu  gYnhesai hykja x dkdkj.kgS& t S U Fkksfi Qy  ^t hu* ' kCn dk i z;ksx l oZ i zFke fd; k Fkk  xkW Yt hdk; dh [ kkst & d S fey ksxkW Yt h us  i i hrkesai hykja x dkdkj.kgS&dS fjdkt fSU Fku & foy gsy e t ksgkU l su us( 1909 esa )  xkW Yt hdk; dsfozQ ; kRed bdkbZdksdgrsgS  l sc esayky ja x dkdkj.kgS& , U Fkksl k; fuu  t hu (Gene) v ofLFkr gksrsgS& xq. kl w =kksaesa & fl LVuhZ(Cisternae)  fepZesayky ja x dk dkj.k & d S Il sfUFku  ^, d t hu , d , Ut kbe* fl ¼kra dksi zfri kfnr  dksf' kdkdkVS fªi Q d iq fyl ( ; krk; kr i czè akd)  xkt j esadkS u l k o.kZ d gksrk gS &dS j ksVhu fd; k Fkk & chMy , oaVS Ve us dgykrk gS& xkW Yt hd k;  ^xSfeV dh ' kq ¼rk* dsfu; e dk i zfri knu  xkW Yt hdk; dk eq [ ; dk; ZgS & L=ko. k d sUæd ] j l / kuh , oar kj d k; fd; k Fkk & esa My us  dkckZskbMªsV dk l a g ' ys"k.k&xkY Wt hdk; }kj k  dsUæd (Nucleus) dh [ kkst dh Fkh  t hou dhmRifÙkgq bZ& i zhd S fEcz;u d ky esa ykbl kl kse & j kW cVZczkmu us( 1831 esa ) xq. kl w =k( ozQ kseksl kse)  dksf' kdki zca/ d dkdk; ZdjrkgS& d sU æd  ykbl klskse dh[ kkst & Mh&Mw csus] 1948 esa  dksf' kdk dk fnekx dgykrk gS& d sU æd  v kuqoaf' kd xq. kksadkokgd gksrkgS& xq. kl w =k  ykbl kslkse , d i zd kj dkgksrkgS& , ta kbe  dsUæd dk eq [ ; Hkkx gksrk gS& ozQ kseS fVu  xq. kl w =k ; k Øksekslkse dh [ kkst  ykbl kslkse dk eq [ ; dk; Zgksrk gS& cká  ozQ ke sfSVu cuk gkrsk gS &i kzV shu fgLVku s o DNA & LVªkl cxZ j us] 1875 esa i nkFkks±d k Hk{k. k , oai kpu d j uk dksf' kdk dh fut hZ o jpuk gS & j l / kuh   ozQ kseklskse ( xq. kl w =k) ' kCn dk ukedj.k ; k  ^vkR egR; kdhFkySh* dgykrkgS&ykbl klske s  jl / kuh i k; k t krk gS& i kni d ksf' kd k esa l oZ i zFke i z;kxs fd; k & okYMs;j us1888 esa  dkfs' kdkdk, Ve ce dgykrkgS&ykbl klske s  rkjdk; (Centrosome) dh[ kkst &cksosjhus  xq. kl w =kksadk fuekZ. k gksrk gS j kbcksl ke  rkjdk; i k; k t krk gS& t U r qd ksf' kd k esa & ØksesfVu uked i nkFkZl s  euq "; ksarFkk t a rq v ksaesafya x fu/ kZ fjr gksrk gS  jkbckslkse dh[ kkst & i S y sM us( 1953 esa) d ksf' kd k foHkkt u & xq. kl w=kksad s} kj k  jkbcklskse cusgksrsgS& RNA , oai kzV shu d s  dsUæd foHkkt u dh fØ; k dgykrh gS  euq "; esaxq. kl w =kksadh l a [ ; k gksrh gS  jkbcklskse dkfuek.ZkgksrkgS& d a fsædk } kj k & d fSj ; ksd kbusfl l &44 v FkkZ r ~23 t ksM+ h  jkbcklskse nksi zd kj dsgksrsgS  l el w=kh foHkkt u (Mitosis) gksrk gS  fya x xq. kl w=k dgykrk gS & 23ok¡ t ksM+ k & 70S j kbcksl kse , oa80S j kbcksl kse & d kf; d d ksf' kd kv ksaesa  i#q"k o L=kht hu l ? akVu gkrsk gS & XY rFkkXX  i kzd s fSj; kfVd esai k; st krsgS&70S j kbcklskse  v ¼Zlw =kh foHkkt u (Meiosis) gksrk gS  iq : "k esa23ok¡ t ksM+ k xq. kl w =k gksrk gS& XY  ;d wS fj; kfVd es ai k; st krsgS& 80S j kbcklskse & yS fxd ( t uu) d ksf' kd kv ksaesa a  efgykesa23ok¡t ksM+ kxq. kl w =kgksrkgS& XX  i kzV shu dk l a ' ys"k.k gksrk gS&j kbcklske s }kj k  vl w=kh foHkkt u gksrk gS & t hok. kqv ksaesa  ekuo esacPpsadk fya x fu/ kZ fjr gksrk gS  ^i zksVhu dhi Q DVªh* dgykrkgS& j kbcksl kse S  l el w=khfoHkkt u dh[ kkst &okYVj Ýysfea x & fi r k d sxq. kl w=k ( XY) } kj k yod  v ¼Zlw =khfoHkkt u dh[ kkst & i QkeZ j o ew js  , d yM+ d kv i usfi rkl sfojkl r esaxq. kl w =k i zkIr djrk gS& 22+Y  yod (Plastid) i k; k t krk gS& i kni esa tS o fod kl  yod rhu i dz kj dsgksrsgS& v o. khZyod U;w fDy d v Ey ( Y; d wkIsy kLV) ] o. khZy od ( oz Qke skIsykLV) ,  i zkÑfrd oj.kdkfl ¼ka r fn; k& MkfoZ u us gfj r yod ( Dy ksjkIsykLV)  mRifjorZ u dk fl ¼ka r fn; k&áw xk& sMh&czht us  U;w fDyd v Ey dh[ kkst & t eZ u oS Kkfud  v o.khZ y od eq [ ; r%i k, t krsgS  uSpq j y l sy Ds' ku (i kzÑfrd p; u) dkfl ¼ka r ÚsMfj d fe' kj us( 1869 esa ) & t M+ ksad h d ksf' kd kv ksaesa fn; k Fkk & MkfoZ u us  U;w fDyd v Ey dk fuekZ. k gksrk gS  iw Q yksa v kS j cht ksa dks v kd"kZ d ja x i znku  fodkl dsfl ¼ka r dsi zfri knd & MkfoZ u &U ;wfDy ; ksVkbM l s djrk gS& ØkseksIy kLV  nksU;w fDyd v Ey gS& RNA v kS j DNA v kuq oa f' kd h  i kS / ksadsi fÙk; ka sdk ja x gjk gksrk gS  RNA dki w. kZ: i gS & Ribo Nucleic Acid & gfj r y od ( Dy ksjksIy kLV) d sd kj. k  v kuq oa f' kdhdk fi rk; kt ud dgk t krkgS  DNA gS & Deoxyribo Nucleic Acid  i fÙk; ksadk ja x i hyk gksrk gS & xszxj h t kW u esa My d ks  DNA dk Mcy gsfyDl ekW My fn; k Fkk &dS j ksVhu d sfuekZ. k d sd kj. k  v kuq oa f' kdh l a ca/ h i z;ksx dsfy, esa My us & okVl u , oafØd us(1953 esa )  i.kZ gfjr ( Dyksjksfi Q y) esa mi fLFkr eq [; fdl i kS / sdk pq uko fd; k Fkk & eVj  okVl u o fØd dksukcsys i jqLdkj& 1962 esa èkkrqgS& eS Xuhf' k; e  v kuq oa f' kdrk ds foKku dks ^v kuq oaf' kdh  DNA l 'ays "k.k dk i fzri knu fd; k&dku W cZxZ  i zd k' k l a' ys"k.k esal gk; rk djrk gS (Genetics)* dgk Fkk& MC Y; wokVl u us  DNA gksrk gS & , d v kuq oa f' kd i nkFkZ & gfj r y od ( Dy ksjksIy kLV)  t susfVd ' kCn dkl oZ i zFke i z;ksx fd; kFkk&  DNA dkeq [ ; dk; ZgS& i zksVhu l a ' y s"k. k  ^dksf' kdk dk jl ksbZ?kj* dgk t krk gS MCY; wokVl u us1905 esa dksfu; fa=kr dj ukr Fkkv kuq ofa' kd foz Q ; kv ka s & gfj r y od d ks  v kuq ofa' kdhmR i fjorZ u gksrkgS&Øke skslke s es a dkl ap ky u d j uk  @RexstarPdf SPEEDY l kekU ; foKku 3  i z;ksx' kkyk esal oZ i zFke DNA dk l a ' ys"k.k  l cl scM+ k ' kS oky & eSozQ ksfl LVhl  l cl sNksVk cht gksrk gS & v kfd Z M fd; k Fkk & gj xksfoU n [ kqj kuk us  l cl sNksVk ' kS oky & Dy sekbMksekuskl  l cl scM+ k cht gksrk gS & y ksMksfl ; k  iS r d̀Ùkk fl ¼ djusesal gk; d gksrk gS  l cl sÅ¡pk i kS / k & fl d ks;k l sEi j foj sa l &DNA v kS j fi Q xj fi za a fVa x VsLV d od  l ksy suslh dqy dsi kS / sagS  DNA fi a Qxj fi zafVax , oaMk; XuksfLVd dsUæ  dod gS&cgq d k'skdh; ; wdS fj ; ksfVd t ho & v ky w ] cSxu] VekVj ] r a a ckd w ] fepZ v ofLFkr gS& gS nj kckn esa  dodksadkvè; ; u dgykrkgS&ekbdkys ktWh  : Vslh dq y dsi kS /a sgS  l sy qy j v kS j ekW y hdw y j t ho foKku dkdsUæ  i zeq [ k dod gS & ; hLV] e' k: e] [ kehj & uha cw]lar j k] csy ] eq l Eeh fLFkr gS& gS nj kckn esa  dodksadhdksf' kdkfHkfÙkfdl dhcuhgksrh  jkst slh dq y dsi kS /a sgS  RNA dk l a ' ys"k.k gksrk gS & DNA l s gS& d kbfVu d h & l sc] uk' ki kr h] xq y kc] j l Hkj h  RNA es a' kdZ j k i kbZt krh gS & j kbcksl  dod esaHkkst u l a fpr jgrk gS  ekyoslh dq y dsi kS /a sgS  DNA es aektSwn ' kdZ j kgS&Mhv kW Dl hj kbckls & Xy kbd kst su d s: i esa & d i kl ] fHk. Mh] xq M+gy  dsUæd esaDNA dk v a ' k gksrk gS& 10%  Mcy jksVh dsfuekZ. k esami ; ksx fd; k t krk  eVj fdl dq y dk i kS / k gS& y sX; q feusl h  DNA cgq y d gS& U ;wfDy v ksVkbM~l dk gS& l S d j ksekbl sl uked d od  xUuk fdl dq y dk i kS / k gS& xzsfeuh d q y  i kzV shu fuek.Zkdsfy, vkns'knsrkgS& DNA  Mcy jksVh cukusesai z;kxs gksrk gS& ; hLV  ykS x fdl dq a y dk i kS / k gS& feVsZl hd q y  i zksVhu dk fuekZ. k djrk gS & RNA  ' kjkc m| ksx esai ;zksx gksrk gS & ; hLV  ykS x dsrsy dk i zeq a [ k ?kVd gS& ; w j sukW y  DNA dh Ü kà [ kyk, ¡ c¡/ h gksrh gS  csd jhesacszsMcukusdsfy, ; hLV dkmi ; ksx t M+ ] r uk] i fÙk; k¡ & gkbMªkst u ca / ls fd; k t krk gS& czsM d ks eq y k; e v kSj  dksf' kdk dsv a nj l w puk dk i zokg fdl ds y phy k cukusd sfy ,  i kS/ ksadk v ojksgh Hkkx gksrk gS & t M+ }kjk gksrk gS& RNA  rdq : i h t M+dsmnkgj.k gS Z & ew yh U;w fDy; l dsckgj DNA feyrk gS y kbd su   dq Hkh: i h t M+dsmnkgj.k gS & ' ky t e a & ekbVksd kW f. Mª; k esa  ykbdsu cusgksrsgS& d od , oa' kS oky l s  ' kaDokdkj t M+dsmnkgj.k gS & xkt j  ykbdsu ' kCn dki F zke i z;kxs& fFk; kÚ sL sVl us  xk¡Bnkj t M+dsmnkgj.k gS & ' kd j d a n ouLi fr foKku  iM sk+a sdhNkyka si j mxusokykykbdsu dgykrk  t M+ ksads: i kU rj.kgS&ew y h] xkt j ] ' kyt e  ouLi fr foKku dk t ud & fFk; ksÚsLV~ l gS& d ksVhZd ksYl  rusds#i kUrj.k gS & v ky w ] v nj d ] gYnh  v k/ q fud ouLi fr foKku dk t ud dgk  pêð kuksai j mxusokyk ykbdsu dgykrk gS  vnjd rFkkvkywds[ kkus; kX s; Hkkx gS & r uk t krk gS & y hfu; l d ks & l sDl hd ksYl  da n dsmnkgj.k gS & v ky w  ouLi fr t xr dkcM+ kl ew g & FkSy ksiQkbVk  xkscj i j mxusokysdod & Øksizksfi Q y  ?kuda n dsmnkgj.k gS & v ksy ] v j ch  FkSy ksiQ kbVk l ewg dsi kS / k gksrk gS& l q d k;  ykbdsu l gk; d gksrk gS & eǹk fuek.Zk esa  i zd an dsmnkgj.k gS & v nj d ] gYnh  l cl sl jy LFkyh; i k/Skl ew g &czk; kisQkbVk  i z;ksx' kkyk esai z;ksx gksusokyk fyVel i =k  ' kYdda n dsmnkgj.k gS& I; kt ] y gl q u  iFzke LFkyh; i k/Skekukt krkgS&czk; kisQ kbVk i zkIr fd; k t krk gS& j ksl sy k y kbd su l s  I; kt dsfNydsmrkjusi j v k¡l wv krsgS  l cl scM+ k czk; ksiQkbVk gS & Mkbl ksfu; k  b=k cukus esami ; ksx esayk; k t kus okyk & l Yi sQ fud v Ey d sd kj. k  l cl sNksVk czk; ksiQ kbVk gS & t w v ksfIl l ykbdsu gS& y kscsfj ; k] bj osfu; k] j sesfuy k  ygl u q es axa/ dk dkj.k gS & , y kbfl u  la ogu mÙkd t kbye rFkkÝyks,e dkv Hkko  fepZdsrh{.krk dk dkj.k gS& d S Il S bfl u gksrk gS& czk; ksiQ kbVk esa v ukoÙ̀kcht h  jkbt kse i kni dk Hkw fexr i zk: i gS& r uk  ouLi fr t xr dk, EiQ hfc; koxZdgykrkgS  v ukoÙ̀kcht h( ft EuksLi eZ ) l ew g dsi kS / ksaesa  nygu dst M+esai k; st kusokyk t hok.kqgS & czk; ksiQkbVk cht gksrsgS& uXu ( v koj. k ughagksrk) & j kbt ksfc; e  VsfjMksiQkbVk l ew g dsi kS / samxrsgS  l cl scM+k v ukor̀cht h i kS / k gS& fl d ks;k  i kS/ saukbVªkst u xzg.k djrsgS & ue , oaNk; knkj LFkkuksai j  l cl sNkV skv ukor̀cht hgS&t fSe; kfi fXe; k & ukbVªsV d s: i esa  l cl sNksVk VsfjMksiQ kbV~l gS & , st ksy k  l kcq nkuk i zkIr gksrk gS & l kbd l l s  og ; a =k ft l ds}kjk rusdh of̀¼ nj uki h  v ukor̀cht h i kS / ksaesai jkx.k dh fozQ; k gksrh t krh gS ] og gS & v kWDt suksehVj ' kS oky gS& ok; qd sekè; e l s  ruk] i Ùkh, oadyhl su; ki kS / ki zkIr djuk  ' koSkykasdkvè; ; u dgykrkgS&i Q kbdkys ktWh dgykrk gS & d kf; d i zo/ Z u  ' kSokyksadh dksf' kdkfHkfr fdl dh cuh gksrh v kor̀ cht h  v kywdk dkf; d i zo/ Z u gksrk gS& r uk l s gS& l sY; w y kst d h  v koÙ̀kcht h( , fUt ; ksLi eZ ) l ewg dsi kS / ksaesa  cz k; kfsi Qye es adkf; d i o z/ u Z gksrkgS&i Ùkkl s  v rafj{k ; k=kh i zksVhu; q Dr Hkkst u] t y v kjS cht gksrsgS& i Q y d sv a nj  i kS/ sadk eq [ ; i zd k' k l a ' ys"kh v a x & i Ùkh vkDW l ht u i kzIr djrsgS&Dy ksjys k' kSoky l s  l cl scM+ k v koÙ̀kcht h i kS / k& ; q d sfy IVl  i fÙk; ksaesav frl w {e fNæ& j a / z(Stomata)  vk; kMshu cukusesami; ksxh' koSky &yseusfj ; k  l cl sNksVk v koÙ̀kcht h i kS /k & y sEuk  i fÙk; k¡ l k¡l ysrh gS & LVksekVk l s  @RexstarPdf SPEEDY l kekU ; foKku 4  ok"i ksRl t Zu esal gk; d gksrk gS& LVksekVk  ' kjhj es amÙkdkasdkfuek.ZkgksrkgS& i kzsVhu l s [ kj&i rokj u"V djusesagksrk gS & v kWfDl u  i kS / ksadh i fÙk; ksadk ja x gjk gksrk gS  t kbye , oaÝyks,e gS& l a oguh; mÙkd  2, 4-D gS S & , d [ kj &i r okj uk' kh & Dy ksjksfi Q y d sd kj. k  i fÙk; ksaesacus[ kk| &i nkFkks±dksi kS/ sadsv U;  xSl h; : i es ai k; kt kusokykgkekuZ s &, fFkyhu  i Ùkh dsyky] ukja xh v kSj i hyk ja x gksrk gS Hkkxksard i gq ¡pkrk gS& Ýy ks,e  , fFkyhu dh [ kkst & cxZus] 1962 esa &dS j ksfVukW bM d sd kj. k  i kS / ksa dh t M+ ksa }kjk v o' kksf"kr t y rFkk  iQ yka sdksi dkusesal gk; d gkrskgS&, fFky hu  Dyksjksfi Q y dsdsUæesagksrkgS & eS Xuhf' k; e [ kfut yo.kksadksi kS / ksadsfofHkUu Hkkxksard  iq"i ksadhl a [ ; kdhof̀¼ esaLkgk; d gksrkgS  i fÙk; kasdk eq [ ; dk; Zgksrk gS& i zd k' k i gq¡pkrk gS& t kby e & , fFky hu la ' y s"k. k fozQ ; k } kj k Hkkst u cukuk  ' kjhj ds mÙkdksarFkk v a xksadks v ki l esa  ckSusi kS / ksadksyEckdjusesal gk; d gksrkgS iQ y t ksM+ usdk dk; Zdjrk gS& l a ; kst h mÙkd & ft czsfy u gkekZ su  jDr , d i zd kj dkgksrkgS& l a ; kst hmÙkd  ft czsfyu dh[ kkst & d j ksl kok us] 1926 esa  iQ yksadk v è; ; u dgykrk gS& i kseksy kW th  dksf' kdk foHkkt u dh nj dks crk gS A 1025 j ks t gksrk gS A fl fy d kW u dk cuk gksrk gS A fdl h ' kC n dh yEckbZfcV esaeki rsgS A NOT xs V Input dksi w. kZdjrk gS A Hkkjr dh fl fydkW u oS y h ca xy ksj esagS A dEI; w Vj dk eq [ ; i Vy ^dh&cksMZ * gS A MAN dk i w. kZ: i ^eYVh us'kuy , fj ; k dEI; w Vj esai zksxzke dh l q ph Menu gS A 3.25" dsÝykW i h esa1.44 MB v k¡d M+ k LVksj usVod Z * gksrk gS A CPU dk i w. kZ: i Central Processing dj l drsgS A baVjusV i j Hkst k t kusokyk l a ns'k bZ &esy (e- Unit gS A IBM dki.w k:Zi ba Vjus ' kuy l e' khu gS fct us A mail) dgykrk gS A WWW dk i w. kZ: i oYMZokbZ M osc gS A gkMZfMLd dh xfr 3600 pØ i zfr feuV dEI; w Vj dk eq [ ; i `"B MsLd VkiW(Desktop) i kzxskzeu gsrqfodfl r i F zke Hkk"kk ^i Q ksjVkªu W* gS A gksrh gS A dgykrk gS A DOS dki w j kuke fMLd v kW i j sfVa x fl LVe dEI; w Vj LØhu i j NksVh fVefVekr h js[kk t kW ; fLVd dk i z;ksx Game [ ksy usesafd; k gS A Cursor ( dl Z j ) dgykrh gS A t krk gS A iQ kbZy (File) fj d kMZ l dkl a ~ xzg gksrk gS A dEI; w Vj can djusdh i zfØ; k Shut Down ALU dk i w. kZ : i Airthmatic Logical Unit dEI; w Vj dkv k/ kj ckbuj h (Binary) l a [;k dgykrk gS A gksrk gS A i ¼fr ( 0] 1) gS A dEI; w Vj pkywdjus dh i zfØ; k cq V vi Key Board, Mouse, Light Pen rFkk Joy- , d ckbZ V ø fcV~ l dscjkcj gksrk gS A stick , d Input Device gS A (Boot Up) dgykrk gS A 1KB cjkcj gks r k gS1024 ckbZ V dsA Hard Disk dhxfr R.P.M. es aeki ht krhgS A ekW uhVj dksVDU dgk t krk gS A RAM d k i w. kZ : i Random Access Dos v kS j Windows , d i zd kj d k VDU bui q V rFkk v kmV i q V nksuksai zd kj dh Memory gS A Operating System gS A fMokbZ l gSA Internet dh ' kq : v kr 1995 esagq bZFkhA ROM dk i w. kZ : i Read Only Memory gS A ia QD' ku d ht dh l a [ ; k 12 gksrh gS A fo' o dk çFke l q i j dEI; w Vj Øsd s1&, l ^i zksy ksx* i ap e i hq d h gqbZgS A ' kfu xzg eq [ ; r%gkbMªkst u , oaghfy ; e l s fofdj.kksadk v o' kks"k.k djrh gS A i fj Øe. k dsdkj.ki F̀ohi j ekS l e i fjorZ u cuk gS A {kksHkeaMy ; k VªksiksfLi Q ; j i F̀oh l rg l s gksrk gS A ' kfu dsmi xzgksad h l a [ ; k 145 gS A djhc 18 Km Å¡pkbZrd i Q y k gS S A ?kq. kZ u dsdkj.k i F̀oh i j fnu&jkr gksrk gS A rkjkdkfuekZ. kgkbMªkst u , oaghfy ; e xS l ksa {kksHkeaMy esackny o"kZ. k v kS j v U; ekS le i F̀oh dh v ka r fjd l a j puk fl ; ky ] l hek l sgksrk gS A foKku l a caf/ r ?kVuk, ¡ ?kVrh gS A v kS j fui sQl sgq bZgS A l ;wZl si F̀ohdhnw j hyxHkx 1.496×1015 Km. gS A i F̀ohdsl cl sdjhc dkea My {kkH sk& eaMy gS A i F̀oh l kS j ea My dk v dsy k , slk xzg gSt gk¡ lw ; Zl sl cl sv f/ d nw j h dk xzg o:. k gS A ok; q ea My dh l cl smi jh i jr cfge± My gS A t hou gS A lw ; Zv i usv {k i j ?kq erk gSft l dk ?kq. kZ u i F̀oh l sl cl sfudV fLFkr xzg ' kq Ø gS A i F̀oh dk i gyk i M+ kslh xzg ' kq Ø rFkk nw l jk d ky yxHkx 25 fnu gS A pUæek i j fnu dk rki eku 100°C gksrk gS A i M+ kslh xzg ea xy gS A l Hkh rkjsv i usØksM esaukfHkd h; l a y; u lw; Zdh l rg dk rki eku 6000°C gS A iQ kscksl , oaMheksl ea xy xzg dsnksmi xzg gS A v fHkfØ; kgksusdsdkj.kmt kZmRiUu djrsgS A lw; Zdh mt kZdk Ï ksr ukfHkd h; l a y ; u gS A ' kfu dk l cl scM+ k mi xzg VkbVu gS A v ksfj ; u , d rkjkea My gS A lw; Zi zd k' k dksi F̀oh i j i gq ¡pusesayxHkx l kjSea My dkl cl sHkkjhvkjScMk+xz g og̀Li fr gS A nqX/ es[kyk , d v kd k' k xa xk gS A ø-ý feuV dk l e; yxrk gS A og̀Li fr dk l cl scM+ k mi xzg xS fuehM gS A l fØ; rkjsdsØksMdki nkFkZxS l : i esagS A pUæekdsi zd k' kdksi F̀ohi j i gq ¡pusesa1.3 xS fuehM l kS j ea My dkl cl scM+ k mi xzg gS A dq N mYdk, ¡ fcuk i w j h rjg t ysi F̀oh i j l sd s.M dk l e; yxrk gS A ' kfu xzg dk ?kuRo l kS j eaMy ds xzgksaesa i gq ¡p t krh gS AbudksmYd k fi a M dgrsgS A i F̀oh d k O;kl 12,756 Km gS A l cl sde gS A nksea nkfdfu; ksadh nw j h cha xk] l hi Dykse t y dk t euk 0 32 273 dsa pqvk Ropk Hkkj r d si z{ksikÐ %, d ut j dejsdk l kekU; rki 27 80-6 300 eD[ kh] fVM~ Mk] frypV~ Vk ' okl uyh ekuo dk l kekU; rki 37 98-6 310 i {zksikÐ i j h{k. k ekj d {ker k fofHkU u;a =kksaesamQ t kZd k : i ka rj.k v fXu 22 May 1989 2000 l s3500 fdehñ t y dk DoFkukad 100 212 373 i F̀oh 150 l s250 fdehñ ;a =k mQ t kZd k : i kU rj.k 25Feb 1988 i zeq [ k foVkfeu , oav kfo"d kj d Mk; ueks ; ka f=kd mQ t kZl sfo| q r mQ t kZ f=k' kw y 5 June 1989 9 fdehñ fo| qr eksVj oS|q r mQ t kZl s; ka f=kd mQ t kZ v kdk' k 14 Aug 1990 25 l s30 fdehñ foVkfeU l v kfo"d kj d eksecÙkh jkl k; fud l sçdk' k mQ t kZ foVkfeu iQ Ud l sy jkl k; fud l soS |qr mQt kZ i zeq [ ki Q l y ksad smU ur fd Lesa foVkfeu&A eS d yqu ykmMLi hdj oS|q r mQ t kZl sèofu mQ t kZ / kU; iQ l y sa foVkfeu&B eS d yqu ekbØksiQ ksu èofu mQ t kZl soS |qr mQt kZ / ku IR&36, IR&20, iwl kckl erh] dLrwj h] foVkfeu&C gksYdV fl r kj ; ka f=kd mQ t kZl sèofu mQ t kZ fodkl ] i hñ , uñ v kjñ] 591-18 foVkfeu&D gkWi fdUl feJ. kksad sçd kj , oamnkgj. k xsgw¡ , pñ Mhñ 2687, , pñ Mhñ 2285, fofHkU u xzgksad smi xzg l hñ 306, i hñ chñ MCY; w156, , p i zd kj mnkgj. k MCY; w157 xzg la [;k çeq [ k mi xzg xSl ksaesaxS l ok; q eDdk xa xk 5, fge 128, ' kfDr] uot ksr] i F̀oh 1 pUnzek nzO; esaxS l l ksMk okVj nzo esanzO; uhcwdk jl , oat y foØe cq èk 0 & nky sai Q l y sa nzO; esaBksl l eq nzh t y ea xy 2 iQ kscksl o Mheksl Bksl esaBksl feJ èkkrq ] feV~Vh puk ds850, i w l k 240, i a r 114 ' kq Ø 0 & v jgj iwl k v xsrh ; ñ i hñ , ñ , l ñ 120, ' kfu 62 VkbVu fofHk fpfd R l k mi d j. k iwl k 84, eud] Vh 21 v:.k 27 fej.Mko , fj; y fpfd R l k mi d j. k mi ; ksx mM+ n Vh9, i ra 430, i h, l 1, l hñ v kñ s5 og̀Li fr 79 xSuhehM bysDVªksd kfMZ ; ksxzki Q ân; esafodkj dki rk ewa x i hñ , yñ 16, , l 8, Vh 44, ds o:. k 14 VªkbVu o usjsbM (ECG) yxkusesa 851, v k' kk i ' kq, oamud h çeq [ k uLy s bysDVªks,fUl i S Q yksxzki Q efLr"d l ca/ahchekfj; ka s fr y gusi Q l y sa i ' kq çeq [ k uLy (EEG) dk fu: i.k djusesa ewxi Q a yh , e , p 2, v kbZ ñ l hñ t hñ , l 1, xk; l kghoky] t l hZ ] dka d jst l hVh LdS u l Eiw. kZ' kjhj dsfdl h , eñ37, t hñt hñ11, Vhñ, eñchñ12 HkS al eqj kZ ] Hknkojh] l q j rh] t i Q jkcknh HkhHkkx esafoÑfr dk l j l ksa i w l k] cksYM] Økafr] i w l kv xz.kh] v kj cdjh xn~ nh] i ' ehuk] esgl kuk , y , e 514, v kj ñ , pñ 30 i rk yxkusesa Hksa M+ Hknjokg] xq j st ] esfjuks] fyfl LVj l ks;kchu i hñ dsñ 262, i hñ dsñ 327, i w l k24, lw vj gsEi' kk; j] ykUMªsl] ; kdZ ' kk; j i sl esd j ân; dh xfr de gks nqxkZ ] xkS jo ?kksM+ k dkfB; kokjh] ekjokM+ h] v jch t kus i j ml s l kekU; lwj t eq[ kh chñ , l ñ , pñ 1, , eñ , l ñ , i Q ñ eqxhZ ysXgkuZ ] feuksd Z] dkfuZ 'k v oLFkk esaykusgsrq , p 8, ekMsZ u] v :.k] i kjl @RexstarPdf  @RexstarPdf SPEEDY l kekU ; foKku 51 1. id z k' kl 'ays "k. kdhfØ; kl cl svf/ d fdl (A) i Q yfHkfÙk (B) eè; i Q yfHkfÙk ja x dsi zd k' kesagksrhgS\ VsLV i sij & 1 (C) i "qi Øe (D) ruk 1. (A) 2. (C) (A) yky (B) gjk 13. e/ qesg jksx fdl dhdehdsdkj. kgksrkgS\ 27. gYnhesai hykja x fdl dhekS twnxhdsdkj. k 3. (C) (C) i hyk (D) cSxuh a (A) , at kbe (B) i z ksVhu gksrkgS\ 2. nygu dsi M s+esai k; st kusokykt hok. kqdkS u (C) bU lqfyu (D) ; jwksØkse (A) ykbdks i hu (B) ; w j ksØkse 4. (B) gS\ 14. bUl q fyu ' kjhj esadgk¡curkgS\ (C) eSy kuhu (D) dq j dqfeu 5. (D) (A) cS l hyl l cfVfyl (A) v ek' k; (B) vX uk' k; 28. VekVj esayky ja x fdl dsdkj. kgksrkgS\ 6. (A) (B) cS l hyl czsohl (C) Nks Vhv k¡r (D) cM+ hv k¡r (A) dq j dqfeu (B) eSy kuhu 7. (D) (C) jkbt ks fc; e 15. nw / esadkS u&l kfoVkfeu ughai k; kt krkgS\ (C) ykbdkfsi u (D) ; jwksØkse 8. (C) (D) LVªs Vksd ksd l ukS l hZ (A) foVkfeu&A (B) foVkfeu&B 29. nw/ esai k; kt kusokyk' kdZj kD; kgS\ 9. (D) 3. i kS / sukbVªkst u fdl : i esaxzg. kdjrsgS\ (C) foVkfeu&C (D) foVkfeu&D (A) ekYVks t (B) l qØkst 10. (C) (A) v kW Dl kbMds: i esa 16. ekuo ew =kesadkSu&l kfoVkfeu mRlft Z r gksrk (C) i Q zDVkst (D) yS DVkst (B) i Q kW Li Q sVds: i esa gS\ 30. t y dk?kuR o v f/ dre fdrusfMxz hi j gksrk 11. (D) (C) ukbVªs V ds: i esa (A) foVkfeu&B (B) foVkfeu&C gS\ 12. (A) (D) ukbVªl v kW Dl kbMds: i (C) foVkfeu&D (D) foVkfeu&K (A) 3°C (B) 4°C 13. (C) 4. i kni ksaesat y rFkk[ kfut yo. kdkl a pkyu 17. ekuo ' kjhj dkl kekU; rki fdrukgkrskgS\ (C) 5°C (D) 6°C 14. (B) fdl ds}kjkgksrkgS\ (A) 17°C (B) 27°C 31. os/u {kerkl okZ f/ d fdl fdj.kesagksrhgS\ 15. (C) (A) Ýyks ,e (B) t kbye (C) 37°C (D) 47°C (A) v Yi Q kfdj. k (B) chVk fdj. k euq "; ksadses: na M l sfdruh t ksM+ h ra f=kdk (C) xkekfdj. k (D) X-jsfdj. k 16. (B) (C) ew y l se (D) okrja/z 18. 5. i kS / ka sesa[ kk| i nkFkZfdl dsekè; e l si gq ¡prk fudyrhgS\ 32. l cl sde rja xnS è; Zfdl ja x esagksrhgS\ 17. (C) gS\ (A) 28 (B) 29 (A) yky (B) cSxuh a 18. (D) (A) okrja /z (B) ja/z (C) 30 (D) 31 (C) gjk (D) uhyk 19. (A) (C) t kbye (D) Ýyk,se 19. xq. kl w =kdh[ kkst fdl usdhFkh\ 33. i zd k' kdhpky v f/ dÙke gksrhgS\ 20. (C) 6. ^v kRegR;kdhFkS y h* dkS u dgykrkgS\ (A) okYMs ;j (B) jkcVZgqd (A) fuokZ r esa (B) t y es a 21. (A) (A) ykbl ks l kse (B) jkbcks t kse (C) okVl u (D) es My a (C) dk¡p es a (D) ydM+ hesa (C) jkbcks l kse (D) buesal sdksbZugha 20. euq"; esaØke sktskse dhl [a; kfdruhgksrhgS\ 34. va r fj{k; k=khdksv kdk' kdkykfdl dsdkj.k 22. (C) 7. ykbl kslkse dh[ kkst fdl usdhFkh\ (A) 44 (B) 45 fn[ kkbZnsrkgS\ 23. (A) (A) t ks gkUl cxZ (B) bokuko sLdh (C) 46 (D) 48 (A) míhi u (B) v i orZ u 24. (A) (C) ykLdh (D) Mhñ Mq cs 21. l cl sNksVht hfor dksf' kdkD; kgS\ (C) i jkorZ u (D) i d z h.kZu 25. (A) 8. ^i zkVshu dhi Q DVªh* dkS S u dgykrkgS\ (A) ekbdkIsykTek (B) ' kq Øk.kq 35. l eq ædkt y uhykfdl dsdkj.kfn[ kkbZns rk 26. (B) (A) ykbl ks l kse (B) ekbVks d kWf. Mª; k (C) RBC (D) WBC gS\ 27. (D) (C) jkbcks l kse (D) buesal sdksbZugha 22. ' kjhj dhl cl sya chdkfs' kdkfdl dhgkrshgS\ (A) míhi u (B) i z d h.kZu 9. i zksVhu dkl 'ays"k. kfdl ds}kjkgksrkgS\ (A) gkFk dh (C) vi orZ u (D) i jkorZ u 28. (C) (A) ykbl ks l kse (B) ekbVks d kWf. Mª; k (B) i Sj dh 36. rkjsafdl dsdkj.kfVefVekrsgS\ 29. (D) (C) ra f=kdkra=kdh (A) i z d h. kZ u (B) míhi u (C) ekbVks IykTek (D) jkbckslkse 30. (B) (D) bues al sdksbZugha (C) vi orZ u (D) i jkorZ u 10. DNA l 'ays "k.kdki fzri knu fdl usfd; k\ 31. (C) (A) okVl u (B) fØd 23. dksf' kdkdkv kuq ofa' kd i nkFkZD; kgS\ 37. ghVj dkrkj fdl dkcukgksrkgS\ 32. (B) (A) rk¡ck (B) VaxLVu (C) dkW uZcxZ (D) A+B nks uksa (A) DNA (B) RNA 33. (A) (C) nku sksa (D) bues al sdksbZugha (C) ykg sk (D) ukbØks e 11. i z;ksx' kkykesal oZ i zFke ^t hu* dkl a ' ys"K. k fdl usfd; k\ 24. dkfs' kdkdsHkhrj ' ol u dkds Uædgk¡gkrskgS\ 38. rsy nhi dhcÙkhesarsy fdl dsdkj. kmQ ij 34. (D) (A) es My a (B) okVl u (A) ekbVªksd kWf. Mª; k (B) Økseklskse p