BES101 Module 3 Individual Behavior, Personality, and Values.pdf

UNIVERSITY OF THE CORDILLERAS MOTIVATION College of Arts and Sciences o The forces within a person that affect his or her direction, intensity, and Department of Psychology and Behavior...

UNIVERSITY OF THE CORDILLERAS MOTIVATION College of Arts and Sciences o The forces within a person that affect his or her direction, intensity, and Department of Psychology and Behavioral Science persistence of voluntary behavior. BES101: Introduction to Behavioral Science ▪ DIRECTION: The path along which people engage their effort. Module 3: Individual Behavior, Personality, and Values People have choices about where they put their effort; List of Topics 1. MARS Model of Individual Behavior and Performance they have a sense of what they are trying to achieve 2. Personality in Organizations and at what level of quality, quantity, and so forth. 3. Self-Concept: The “I” in Organizational Behavior MOTIVATION IS GOAL-DIRECTED. 4. Values in the Workplace and Across Cultures ▪ INTENSITY: 5. Ethical Values and Behaviors The amount of effort allocated to the goal. How much people push themselves to complete a task. ▪ PERSISTENCE: I. MARS MODEL OF INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIOR AND PERFORMANCE Continuing the effort for a certain amount of time. Direct predictors of individual behavior: Employees sustain their effort until they reach their goal o PERFORMANCE = PERSON (Individual Characteristics) x SITUATION or give up beforehand. (External Influences on the individual’s behavior) ABILITY o Includes the natural aptitudes and capabilities required to successfully complete a task. o APTITUDES are the natural talents that help employees learn specific tasks more quickly and perform them better. o There are many physical and mental aptitudes, and our ability to acquire skills is affected by these aptitudes. ROLE PERCEPTIONS o The extent to which people understand the job duties (roles) assigned to or expected of them. o Critical because they guide the employee’s direction of effort and improve coordination with co-workers, suppliers, and other stakeholders. o COMPONENTS: ▪ Accurate role perceptions where they understand the specific tasks assigned to them, that is, when they know the specific duties or consequences for which they are accountable.  ▪ Accurate role perceptions when they understand the priority of ▪ The genetic code not only determines our eye color, skin tone, their various tasks and performance expectations. and physical shape but also has a significant effect on our ▪ Understanding the preferred behaviors or procedures for attitudes, decisions, and behavior. accomplishing the assigned tasks. o NURTURE ▪ The person’s socialization, life experiences, and other forms of SITUATIONAL FACTORS interaction with the environment. o Conditions beyond the employee’s immediate control that constrain o Personality becomes stable over time as people form clearer and or facilitate behavior and performance. more rigid self-concepts as they get older. o Some situational characteristics (i.e., consumer preferences and ▪ The executive function of our brain keeps our behavior economic conditions) originate from the external environment and consistent with our self-concept. consequently, are beyond the employee’s and organization’s control. ▪ As self-concept becomes clearer and more stable with age, o Other situational factors (i.e., time, people, budget, and physical work behavior and personality therefore also become more stable facilities) are controlled by people within the organization. and consistent. FIVE-FACTOR MODEL OF PERSONALITY (OCEAN) (McCrae & Costa, 1987) II. PERSONALITY IN ORGANIZATIONS o The five abstract dimensions representing most personality traits: PERSONALITY conscientiousness, emotional stability, openness to experience, agreeableness, and extroversion. o The relatively enduring pattern of thoughts, emotions, and behaviors o (1) OPENNESS TO EXPERIENCE that characterize a person, along with the psychological processes ▪ The most complex dimension. behind those characteristics. ▪ People with a high score in this dimension tend to be o The bundle of characteristics that make us similar to or different from imaginative, creative, curious, and sensitive. other people. ▪ Those who score low on this dimension tend to be more resistant o People have inherent characteristics or traits that can be identified by to change, less open to new ideas, and more conventional and the consistency or stability of their behavior across time and situations. fixed in their ways. o (2) CONSCIENTIOUSNESS PERSONALITY TRAITS ▪ A personality dimension describing people who are careful, o Discernible patterns of a wide range of behaviors exhibited by an dependable, and self-disciplined. individual. ▪ People with low conscientiousness tend to be careless, less o Helps in the prediction of an individual’s behavior far into the future. thorough, more disorganized, and irresponsible. o (3) EXTROVERSION ▪ A personality dimension describing people who are outgoing, PERSONALITY DETERMINANTS: NATURE vs. NURTURE talkative, sociable, and assertive. o NATURE ▪ The opposite is INTROVERSION, which characterizes those who ▪ Genetic or hereditary origins, the genes we inherit from our are quiet, shy, and cautious. parents.  ▪ Extroverts get their energy from the outer world (people and ▪ Those with a strong FEELING orientation rely on their emotional things around them), whereas Introverts get their energy from responses to the options presented, as well as to how those the internal world (personal reflection on concepts and ideas). choices affect others. ▪ Introverts do not necessarily lack social skills, rather they are o MBTI more inclined to direct their interests to ideas than to social ▪ Measures Jung’s broader categories of perceiving and judging. events. They feel quite comfortable being alone, whereas ▪ People with a PERCEIVING orientation are open, curious, and Extroverts do not. flexible; prefer to adapt spontaneously to events as they unfold o (4) AGREEABLENESS and prefer to keep their options open. ▪ This dimension includes the traits of being courteous, good- ▪ JUDGING types prefer order and structure and want to resolve natured, empathic, and caring. problems quickly. ▪ People with low agreeableness tend to be uncooperative, ▪ The MBTI is the most widely used personality tests in work settings short-tempered, and irritable. as well as in career counseling and executive coaching. o (5) NEUROTICISM ▪ Characterizes people with high levels of anxiety, hostility, depression, and self-consciousness. III. SELF-CONCEPT: THE “I” IN ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR ▪ People with low neuroticism (high emotional stability) are SELF-CONCEPT poised, secure, and calm. o An individual’s self-beliefs and self-evaluations. o The “Who am I?” and “How do I feel about myself?” that people ask JUNGIAN PERSONALITY THEORY AND THE MYER-BRIGGS TYPE INDICATOR (MBTI) o Carl Gustav Jung proposed that personality is primarily represented by themselves and that guide their decisions and actions. the individual’s preferences regarding perceiving and judging o People do not have a single unitary self-concept rather they think of information. themselves in several ways in various situations. o Jung explained that PERCEIVING, which involves how people prefer to gather information or perceive the world around them, occurs through (A) STRUCTURAL DIMENSIONS OF SELF-CONCEPT two competing orientations: SENSING (S) and INTUITION (N). o Influence an individual’s adaptability and well-being ▪ SENSING: involves perceiving information directly through the o COMPLEXITY five senses and relies on organized structure to acquire factual ▪ A person’s self-concept has higher complexity when it consists and preferably quantitative details. of many categories. ▪ INTUITION: Relies more on insight and subjective experience to o CONSISTENCY see relationships among variables. ▪ People have high consistency when similar personality traits and o JUDGING: How people process information or make decisions based values are required across all aspects of self-concept. on what they have perceived: THINKING (T) and FEELING (F) ▪ Low consistency occurs when some aspects of the self require ▪ People with a THINKING orientation rely on rational cause-effect personal characteristics that conflict with the characteristics required for other aspects of the self. logic and systematic data collection to make decisions. o CLARITY  ▪ The degree to which a person’s self-conceptions are clearly The more confident employees are in their self-concept, and confidently described, internally consistent, and stable the less they will accept feedback – positive or negative across time. – that is at odds with their self-concept. ▪ A clear self-concept necessarily requires a consistent self- Employees are motivated to interact with others who concept. affirm their self-concept, and this affects how well they o People function better when their self-concept has many elements get along with their boss and with co-workers in teams. (HIGH COMPLEXITY) that are compatible with each other (HIGH o (3) SELF-EVALUATION CONSISTENCY) and are relatively clear. ▪ Almost everyone strives to have a positive self-concept, but o People are more rigid and inflexible, and therefore, less adaptable, some people have a more positive evaluation of themselves when their self-view consists only of a few similar characteristics (LOW than do others. COMPLEXITY). ▪ COMPONENTS: o People also have poorer psychological adjustment when their self- (a) SELF-ESTEEM concept is less clear and includes conflicting elements. o The extent to which people like, respect, and are satisfied with themselves – represents a global self- (B) ELEMENTS evaluation. o (1) SELF-ENHANCEMENT o People with HIGH SELF-ESTEEM are less influenced ▪ People are inherently motivated to promote and protect a self- by others, tend to persist despite failure, and think view of being competent, attractive, lucky, ethical, and more rationally. important. o Self-esteem regarding specific aspects of self ▪ Individuals tend to rate themselves above average, selectively (e.g., a good student, a good driver, a good recall positive feedback while forgetting negative feedback, parent) predicts specific thoughts and behaviors, attribute their successes to personal motivation or ability while whereas a person’s overall self-esteem predicts blaming the situation for their mistakes, and believe that they only large bundles of thoughts and behaviors. have a better than average probability of success. (b) SELF-EFFICACY ▪ People do not see themselves as above average in all o A person’s belief that he or she can successfully circumstances, but this bias is apparent for conditions that are complete a task. common rather than rare and that are important to them. o Those with HIGH SELF-EFFICACY have a “CAN DO” o (2) SELF-VERIFICATION attitude, they believe the possess the energy ▪ Stabilizes an individual’s self-concept which in turn provides an (motivation), resources (situational factors), important anchor that guides his or her thoughts and actions. understanding of the correct course of action ▪ IMPLICATIONS: (role perceptions), and competencies (ability) to Affects the perceptual process because employees are perform the task. more likely to remember information that is consistent o GENERAL SELF-EFFICACY is a perception of one’s with their self-concept. competence to perform across a variety of situations, the higher the person’s general self-  efficacy, the higher is his or her overall self- o SOCIAL IDENTITY THEORY evaluation. ▪ People define themselves by groups to which they belong or (c) LOCUS OF CONTROL have an emotional attachment. o A person’s general belief about the amount of ▪ Social Identity is a complex combination of many memberships control he or she has over personal life events. arranged in a hierarchy of importance. o Individuals with more of an INTERNAL LOCUS OF CONTROL believe that their personal characteristics (i.e., motivation and IV. VALUES IN THE WORKPLACE competencies) mainly influence life’s outcomes. VALUES o Those with more of an EXTERNAL LOCUS OF o Stable, evaluative beliefs that guide our preferences for outcomes or CONTROL believe that events in their life are due courses of action in a variety of situations. mainly to fate, luck, or conditions in the external o Perceptions about what is good or bad, right or wrong. environment. o Tell us what we “ought” to do, they serve as a moral compass that o Locus of control is a generalized belief, so people directs our motivation, and potentially, our decisions and actions. with an external locus of can feel in control in o They partly define who we are as individuals and as members of familiar situations (such as performing common groups with similar values. tasks). o VALUE SYSTEM o However, their underlying locus of control would ▪ Hierarchy of preferences in the arrangement of our values. be apparent in new situations in which control o PERSONAL VALUES over events is uncertain. ▪ Values that exist within individuals. o People with a more internal locus have a more o SHARED VALUES positive self-evaluation, they perform better in ▪ Groups of people might hold the same or similar values. most employment situations, are more successful o ORGANIZATIONAL VALUES in their careers, earn more money, and are better ▪ Values shared by people throughout an organization. suited for leadership positions. They are generally more satisfied with their jobs, cope better in stressful situations, and are more motivated by performance-based reward systems. (C) THE SOCIAL SELF o PERSONAL IDENTITY ▪ Characteristics that make us unique and distinct from people in the social groups to which they have a connection. ▪ Something about you as an individual without reference to a larger group.  (A) TYPES OF VALUES: SCHWARTZ’S VALUES CIRCUMPLEX one’s life) and universalism (concern for the welfare of all people and nature). (B) VALUES AND INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIOR o Habitual behavior tends to be consistent with our values, but our everyday conscious decisions and actions apply our values much less consistently. o The main reason for the “disconnect” between personal values and individual behavior is that values are abstract concepts that sound good in theory but are less easily followed in practice. o LINKS BETWEEN PERSONAL VALUES AND BEHAVIOR: ▪ We are more likely to apply values when we are reminded of them. ▪ We tend to apply our values only when we can think of specific reasons for doing so. ▪ We tend to apply our values in situations that facilitate doing so. (C) VALUE CONGRUENCE o How similar a person’s value hierarchy is to the value hierarchy of the organization, a co-worker, or another source of comparison. o PERSON-ORGANIZATION VALUE CONGRUENCE ▪ Occurs when the employee’s and organization’s dominant o o OPENNESS TO CHANGE: Extent to which a person is motivated to values are similar. pursue innovative ways, includes the value domains of self-direction ▪ Values are guideposts so employees whose values are similar to (creativity, independent thought) and stimulation (excitement and the dominant organizational values are more likely to make challenge). decisions compatible with the organization’s value-based o CONSERVATION: Extent to which a person is motivated to preserve the mission and objectives. status quo, includes the value clusters of conformity (adherence to ▪ Leads to higher job satisfaction, loyalty, and organizational social norms and expectations), security (safety and stability), and citizenship as well as lower stress and turnover. tradition (moderation and preservation of the status quo). o ESPOUSED-ENACTED VALUE CONGRUENCE o SELF-ENHANCEMENT: How much a person is motivated by self-interest, ▪ Especially important for people in leadership positions because includes the value categories of achievement (pursuit of personal any obvious gap between espoused and enacted values success) and power (dominance over others). undermines their perceived integrity, a critical feature of effective leaders. o SELF-TRANSCENDENCE: Motivation to promote the welfare of others and nature, includes the values of benevolence (concern for others in  o COMPATIBILITY OF AN ORGANIZATION’S DOMINANT VALUES WITH THE commands from their superiors without consultation or debate, PREVAILING VALUES OF THE COMMUNITY OR SOCIETY IN WHICH IT and they prefer to resolve differences indirectly through formal CONDUCTS BUSINESS. procedures rather than directly. ▪ LOW POWER DISTANCE expects relatively equal power sharing, (D) VALUES ACROSS CULTURES they view the relationship with their boss as one of interdependence, not dependence; that is, they believe their boss is also dependent on them, so they expect power sharing and consultation before decisions affecting them are made. o (3) UNCERTAINTY AVOIDANCE ▪ The degree to which people tolerate ambiguity (low uncertainty avoidance) or feel threatened by ambiguity and uncertainty (high uncertainty avoidance). ▪ Employees with high uncertainty avoidance value structured situations in which rules of conduct and decision making are clearly documented, they usually prefer direct rather than indirect or ambiguous communications. o (4) ACHIEVEMENT-NURTURING ORIENTATION ▪ Reflects a competitive vs. cooperative view of relations with o other people. o (1) INDIVIDUALISM AND COLLECTIVISM ▪ People with HIGH ACHIEVEMENT ORIENTATION value ▪ INDIVIDUALISM: The extent to which we value independence assertiveness, competitiveness, and materialism, they and personal uniqueness. appreciate people who are tough, and they favor the Highly individualist people value personal freedom, self- acquisition of money and material goods. sufficiency, control over their own lives, and appreciation ▪ People in NURTURING-ORIENTED CULTURES emphasize of the unique qualities that distinguish them from others. relationships and the well-being of others, they focus on human ▪ COLLECTIVISM: The extent to which we value our duty to groups interaction and caring rather than competition and personal to which we belong and to group harmony. success. Highly collectivist people define themselves by their group memberships and value harmonious relationships with those groups. o (2) POWER DISTANCE ▪ The extent to which people accept unequal distribution of power in a society. ▪ HIGH POWER DISTANCE accepts and value unequal power, they value obedience to authority and are comfortable receiving V. ETHICAL VALUES AND BEHAVIOR ▪ People who are like each other should receive similar benefits ETHICS and burdens; those who are dissimilar should receive different o Refers to the study of moral principles or values that determine benefits and burdens in proportion to their dissimilarity. whether actions are right or wrong and outcomes are good or bad. ▪ DISADVANTAGE: o People rely on their ethical values to determine “the right thing to do”. It is difficult to agree on who is “similar” and what factors are “relevant”. (A) THREE ETHICAL PRINCIPLES o (1) UTILITARIANISM (B) MORAL INTENSITY, ETHICAL SENSITIVITY, AND SITUATIONAL INFLUENCES o (1) MORAL INTENSITY ▪ Advises us to seek the greatest good for the greatest number of ▪ The degree to which an issue demands the application of people. ethical principles. ▪ Choosing the option that provides the highest degree of ▪ Decisions with high moral intensity are more important, so the satisfaction to those affected. decision maker needs to more carefully apply ethical principles ▪ CONSEQUENTIAL PRINCIPLE that focuses on the consequences to resolve it. of our actions, not on how we achieve those consequences. o (2) ETHICAL SENSITIVITY ▪ DISADVANTAGES: ▪ A personal characteristic that enables people to recognize the Almost impossible to evaluate the benefits or costs of presence of an ethical issue and determine its relative many decisions, particularly when many stakeholders importance. have wide-ranging needs and values. ▪ Ethically sensitive people are not necessarily more ethical Even if the objective of our behavior is ethical according rather, they are more likely to recognize whether an issue to utilitarianism, the means of achieving that objective is requires ethical consideration; that is, they can more accurately sometimes considered unethical. estimate the moral intensity of the issue. o (2) INDIVIDUAL RIGHTS ▪ Ethically sensitive people tend to have higher empathy and ▪ Reflects the belief that everyone has entitlements that let her or have more information about the specific situation. him act in a certain way. o (3) SITUATIONAL INFLUENCES ▪ Some of the most widely cited rights are freedom of movement, ▪ Employees say they regularly experience pressure from top physical security, freedom of speech, fair trial, and freedom management that motivates them to lie to customers, breach from torture. regulations, or otherwise act unethically. ▪ The individual-rights principle includes more than legal rights; it ▪ Situational factors do not justify unethical conduct rather we also includes human rights that everyone is granted as a moral need to recognize these factors so that organizations can norm of society. reduce their influence in the future. ▪ DISADVANTAGE: Certain individual rights may conflict with others. o (3) DISTRIBUTIVE JUSTICE