BEH223 Midterm Study Guide PDF

Sociology examines how individuals interact with external social forces, while psychology focuses on internal states of mind. Sociologists study the various parts of society and how they interact and influence one another. Sociology\'s integrative approach distinguishes it from other social sc...

Sociology examines how individuals interact with external social forces, while psychology focuses on internal states of mind. Sociologists study the various parts of society and how they interact and influence one another. Sociology\'s integrative approach distinguishes it from other social sciences by providing a more comprehensive view. Sociology systematically studies human society, from large-scale institutions to individual interactions. Experiencing culture shock helps sociologists recognize their own lack of understanding, encouraging them to perceive their surroundings more accurately. Macrosociology examines large-scale social structures and their effects on individual lives. Microsociology studies interactions between individuals and how those interactions reflect larger societal patterns. Sociologists view macrosociology and microsociology as complementary perspectives, selecting the approach that best suits the research problem. Both macrosociological and microsociological analyses offer valuable insights into social phenomena. A researcher studying interactions in middle school classrooms is focusing on a microsociological level of analysis. A paradigm is a set of assumptions, theories, and perspectives used to understand social reality. Durkheim theorized that rapid changes in modern life lead to normlessness, which he called anomie. Structures in structural functionalism are social institutions that contribute to societal stability over time. A key criticism of structural functionalism is its tendency to assume that all social features serve a purpose. Feminist theory, like conflict theory, seeks to understand and remedy social inequality. Reviewing the literature is a crucial step in the scientific method that helps avoid duplicating existing research. An operational definition specifies how a concept will be measured or defined for a study. A spurious correlation is when two variables appear related but are actually influenced by a third factor. Quantitative survey research offers the advantage of easily sharing data and analyzing responses statistically. A hypothesis is a testable statement predicting a relationship between variables, such as watching violence on TV leading to increased violent behavior. Correlation shows a relationship between variables, but it doesn\'t prove causation. Taking an overt role in ethnography means participants are aware that the researcher is observing them. A key disadvantage of ethnography is its difficulty in being replicated by other researchers. Field notes are the written observations collected by researchers during ethnographic studies. Closed-ended questions limit the possible responses to a set of predefined options. Open-ended questions allow respondents to answer in their own words, providing a wider range of responses. Double-barreled questions ask about multiple issues at once and should be avoided in surveys. Participant observation involves the researcher actively participating in the social setting they are studying. Quantitative research focuses on numerical data and statistical analysis to document trends or patterns. Culture encompasses the entire way of life of a group of people, including their beliefs, behaviors, and material objects. Values and beliefs are learned incrementally through socialization rather than being innate. Ethnocentrism involves judging other cultures by the standards of one\'s own culture. Cultural relativism is the ability to understand another culture on its own terms without reference to one\'s own cultural standards. Ethnocentric individuals use their own culture as the standard to judge others, viewing other cultures as abnormal. Material culture includes physical objects, while nonmaterial culture refers to ideas, values, and norms. Nonmaterial culture enables communication and understanding within a society. Sanctions are ways that societies enforce norms, including both rewards for conformity and punishments for violations. The meaning of gestures can vary between cultures, making some actions inappropriate in certain contexts. The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis suggests that language shapes our perceptions of reality. Dominant culture refers to the values, norms, and practices of the most powerful group in society. Multiculturalism involves promoting the respect and inclusion of diverse cultural perspectives within a society. Hegemony occurs when the dominant culture imposes its values and ideas on society as a whole. Countercultural groups reject the norms and values of the dominant culture. The nature versus nurture debate explores the interaction between inherited traits and social learning in shaping behavior. The nature versus nurture debate is a key framework for understanding whether behaviors are biologically or socially driven. Socialization is the process by which individuals learn the norms, values, and roles of their society. Socialization continues throughout life, shaping both the individual and society. Feral children emphasize the importance of socialization in human development. Learning to take the role of the generalized other involves understanding society's expectations as a whole. Expressions given off are typically nonverbal and harder to control than expressions given. The id represents instinctual drives, while the superego reflects internalized societal norms. Freud\'s concept of the ego mediates between biological drives and social expectations. A total institution is a setting where individuals are isolated and their behavior is controlled, such as in a boot camp. The family is a powerful agent of socialization because it is one of the earliest and most influential environments for children. Churches serve as agents of socialization by transmitting shared values and formal rules to members. Groups involve ongoing social relationships and a shared identity, while crowds do not. Aggregates consist of individuals who are temporarily in the same space but do not have ongoing social ties. A category is a collection of individuals who share certain traits but do not necessarily interact. Primary groups, such as families, are emotionally close, while secondary groups, such as organizations, are more formal and goal-oriented. Social network analysis is useful for studying how quickly a virus spreads among populations. Anomie, or normlessness, occurs when individuals feel disconnected from the social norms and values of society. Civic engagement, such as participation in a club, can counter feelings of social isolation and reinforce social ties. Larger groups tend to be governed by rules and regulations, whereas smaller groups are often based on personal relationships. To prevent groupthink, leaders should encourage the presentation of alternative viewpoints. If one person leaves a triad, the group reverts to a dyad. Rites of passage are rituals or ceremonies marking a person's transition from one social status to another. Group dynamics refer to the patterns of interaction between individuals and groups. Excessive group cohesion can lead to groupthink, where dissenting opinions are suppressed. In the Asch experiment, 25% of participants resisted group pressure and maintained their independence. Traditional authority derives legitimacy from long-established customs, such as that of a queen.