Basic Calculus PDF

Understanding Basic Calculus S.K. Chung Dedicated to all the people who have helped me in my life.  i Preface Thi...

Understanding Basic Calculus S.K. Chung Dedicated to all the people who have helped me in my life.  i Preface This book is a revised and expanded version of the lecture notes for Basic Calculus and other similar courses offered by the Department of Mathematics, University of Hong Kong, from the first semester of the academic year 1998-1999 through the second semester of 2006-2007. It can be used as a textbook or a reference book for an introductory course on one variable calculus. In this book, much emphasis is put on explanations of concepts and solutions to examples. By reading the book carefully, students should be able to understand the concepts introduced and know how to answer questions with justification. At the end of each section (except the last few), there is an exercise. Students are advised to do as many questions as possible. Most of the exercises are simple drills. Such exercises may not help students understand the concepts; however, without practices, students may find it difficult to continue reading the subsequent sections. Chapter 0 is written for students who have forgotten the materials that they have learnt for HKCEE Mathe- matics. Students who are familiar with the materials may skip this chapter. Chapter 1 is on sets, real numbers and inequalities. Since the concept of sets is new to most students, detail explanations and elaborations are given. For the real number system, notations and terminologies that will be used in the rest of the book are introduced. For solving polynomial inequalities, the method will be used later when we consider where a function is increasing or decreasing as well as where a function is convex or concave. Students should note that there is a shortcut for solving inequalities, using the Intermediate Value Theorem discussed in Chapter 3. Chapter 2 is on functions and graphs. Some materials are covered by HKCEE Mathematics. New concepts introduced include domain and range (which are fundamental concepts related to functions); composition of functions (which will be needed when we consider the Chain Rule for differentiation) and inverse functions (which will be needed when we consider exponential functions and logarithmic functions). In Chapter 3, intuitive idea of limit is introduced. Limit is a fundamental concept in calculus. It is used when we consider differentiation (to define derivatives) and integration (to define definite integrals). There are many types of limits. Students should notice that their definitions are similar. To help students understand such similarities, a summary is given at the end of the section on two-sided limits. The section of continuous functions is rather conceptual. Students should understand the statements of the Intermediate Value Theorem (several versions) and the Extreme Value Theorem. In Chapters 4 and 5, basic concepts and applications of differentiation are discussed. Students who know how to work on limits of functions at a point should be able to apply definition to find derivatives of “simple” functions. For more complicated ones (polynomial and rational functions), students are advised not to use definition; instead, they can use rules for differentiation. For application to curve sketching, related concepts like critical numbers, local extremizers, convex or concave functions etc. are introduced. There are many easily confused terminologies. Students should distinguish whether a concept or terminology is related to a function, to the x-coordinate of a point or to a point in the coordinate plane. For applied extremum problems, students ii should note that the questions ask for global extremum. In most of the examples for such problems, more than one solutions are given. In Chapter 6, basic concepts and applications of integration are discussed. We use limit of sums in a specific form to define the definite integral of a continuous function over a closed and bounded interval. This is to make the definition easier to handle (compared with the more subtle concept of “limit” of Riemann sums). Since definite integrals work on closed intervals and indefinite integrals work on open intervals, we give different definitions for primitives and antiderivatives. Students should notice how we can obtain antiderivatives from primitives and vice versa. The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus (several versions) tells that differentiation and integration are reverse process of each other. Using rules for integration, students should be able to find indefinite integrals of polynomials as well as to evaluate definite integrals of polynomials over closed and bounded intervals. Chapters 7 and 8 give more formulas for differentiation. More specifically, formulas for the derivatives of the sine, cosine and tangent functions as well as that of the logarithmic and exponential functions are given. For that, revision of properties of the functions together with relevant limit results are discussed. Chapter 9 is on the Chain Rule which is the most important rule for differentiation. To make the rule easier to handle, formulas obtained from combining the rule with simple differentiation formulas are given. Students should notice that the Chain Rule is used in the process of logarithmic differentiation as well as that of implicit differentiation. To close the discussion on differentiation, more examples on curve sketching and applied extremum problems are given. Chapter 10 is on formulas and techniques of integration. First, a list of formulas for integration is given. Students should notice that they are obtained from the corresponding formulas for differentiation. Next, several techniques of integration are discussed. The substitution method for integration corresponds to the Chain Rule for differentiation. Since the method is used very often, detail discussions are given. The method of Integration by Parts corresponds to the Product Rule for differentiation. For integration of rational functions, only some special cases are discussed. Complete discussion for the general case is rather complicated. Since Integration by Parts and integration of rational functions are not covered in the course Basic Calculus, the discussion on these two techniques are brief and exercises are not given. Students who want to know more about techniques of integration may consult other books on calculus. To close the discussion on integration, application of definite integrals to probability (which is a vast field in mathematics) is given. Students should bear in mind that the main purpose of learning calculus is not just knowing how to perform differentiation and integration but also knowing how to apply differentiation and integration to solve problems. For that, one must understand the concepts. To perform calculation, we can use calculators or computer soft- wares, like Mathematica, Maple or Matlab. Accompanying the pdf file of this book is a set of Mathematica notebook files (with extension.nb, one for each chapter) which give the answers to most of the questions in the exercises. Information on how to read the notebook files as well as trial version of Mathematica can be found at http://www.wolfram.com. Contents 0 Revision 1 0.1 Exponents................................................... 1 0.2 Algebraic Identities and Algebraic Expressions............................... 2 0.3 Solving Linear Equations........................................... 4 0.4 Solving Quadratic Equations......................................... 6 0.5 Remainder Theorem and Factor Theorem.................................. 8 0.6 Solving Linear Inequalities.......................................... 10 0.7 Lines..................................................... 12 0.8 Pythagoras Theorem, Distance Formula and Circles............................. 17 0.9 Parabola.................................................... 19 0.10 Systems of Equations............................................. 20 1 Sets, Real Numbers and Inequalities 23 1.1 Sets...................................................... 23 1.1.1 Introduction.............................................. 23 1.1.2 Set Operations............................................ 28 1.2 Real Numbers................................................. 32 1.2.1 The Number Systems......................................... 32 1.2.2 Radicals................................................ 34 1.3 Solving Inequalities.............................................. 37 1.3.1 Quadratic Inequalities........................................ 38 1.3.2 Polynomial Inequalities with degrees ≥ 3.............................. 39 2 Functions and Graphs 43 2.1 Functions................................................... 43 2.2 Domains and Ranges of Functions...................................... 45 2.3 Graphs of Equations............................................. 49 2.4 Graphs of Functions.............................................. 53 2.5 Compositions of Functions.......................................... 64 2.6 Inverse Functions............................................... 66 2.7 More on Solving Equations.......................................... 69 3 Limits 73 3.1 Introduction.................................................. 73 3.2 Limits of Sequences.............................................. 75 3.3 Limits of Functions at Infinity........................................ 80 3.4 One-sided Limits............................................... 86 3.5 Two-sided Limits............................................... 89 3.6 Continuous Functions............................................. 94 4 Differentiation 103 4.1 Derivatives.................................................. 103 4.2 Rules for Differentiation........................................... 110 4.3 Higher-Order Derivatives........................................... 123 iv CONTENTS 5 Applications of Differentiation 127 5.1 Curve Sketching................................................ 128 5.1.1 Increasing and Decreasing Functions................................ 128 5.1.2 Relative Extrema........................................... 131 5.1.3 Convexity............................................... 136 5.1.4 Curve Sketching........................................... 143 5.2 Applied Extremum Problems......................................... 146 5.2.1 Absolute Extrema........................................... 146 5.2.2 Applied Maxima and Minima.................................... 148 5.2.3 Applications to Economics...................................... 153 6 Integration 157 6.1 Definite Integrals............................................... 157 6.2 Fundamental Theorem of Calculus...................................... 162 6.3 Indefinite Integrals.............................................. 167 6.4 Application of Integration........................................... 173 7 Trigonometric Functions 179 7.1 Angles..................................................... 179 7.2 Trigonometric Functions........................................... 180 7.3 Differentiation of Trigonometric Functions.................................. 187 8 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions 191 8.1 Exponential Functions............................................ 191 8.2 Logarithmic Functions............................................ 196 8.3 Differentiation of Exp and Log Functions.................................. 201 9 More Differentiation 207 9.1 Chain rule................................................... 207 9.2 Implicit Differentiation............................................ 215 9.3 More Curve Sketching............................................ 219 9.4 More Extremum Problems.......................................... 222 10 More Integration 229 10.1 More Formulas................................................ 229 10.2 Substitution Method.............................................. 232 10.3 Integration of Rational Functions....................................... 240 10.4 Integration by Parts.............................................. 246 10.5 More Applications of Definite Integrals................................... 248 A Answers 255 B Supplementary Notes 269 B.1 Mathematical Induction............................................ 269 B.2 Binomial Theorem.............................................. 271 B.3 Mean Value Theorem............................................. 274 B.4 Fundamental Theorem of Calculus...................................... 276 Chapter 0 Revision 0.1 Exponents Definition (1) Let n be a positive integer and let a be a real number. We define an to be the real number given by an = a | · {z a · · ·} a. n factors (2) Let n be a negative integer n, that is, n = −k where k is a positive integer, and let a be a real number different from 0. We define a−k to be the real number given by 1 a−k =. ak (3) (i) Let a be a real number different from 0. We define a0 = 1. (ii) We do not define 00 (thus the notation 00 is meaningless). Terminology In the notation an , the numbers n and a are called the exponent and base respectively. Rules for Exponents Let a and b be real numbers and let m and n be integers (when a = 0 or b = 0, we have to add the condition: m, n different from 0). Then we have (1) am an = am+n am (2) = am−n provided that a , 0 an (3) (am )n = amn (4) (ab)n = an bn  a n an (5) = n provided that b , 0 b b Exercise 0.1 1. Simplify the following; give your answers without negative exponents. x−1 y2 (a) x6 x−3 (b) z−3  4  −3  2 (c) x−2 y3 (d) 2x2 y4 ÷ x−1 y 2 Chapter 0. Revision 0.2 Algebraic Identities and Algebraic Expressions Identities Let a and b be real numbers. Then we have (1) (a + b)2 = a2 + 2ab + b2 (2) (a − b)2 = a2 − 2ab + b2 (3) (a + b)(a − b) = a2 − b2 Remark The above equalities are called identities because they are valid for all real numbers a and b. Caution In general, (a + b)2 , a2 + b2. Note: (a + b)2 = a2 + b2 if and only if a = 0 or b = 0. Example Expand the following: √ 2 (1) x+2 !2 5 (2) x − x √  √  (3) x2 + 1 + 7 x2 + 1 − 7 Solution √ 2 √ 2 √  (1) x+2 = x + 2 x (2) + 22 √ = x+4 x+4 !2 ! !2 5 5 5 (2) x− = x2 − 2(x) + x x x 25 = x2 − 10 + x2 √  √  √ 2 (3) x2 + 1 + 7 x2 + 1 − 7 = x 2 + 1 − 72   = x2 + 1 − 49 = x2 − 48  Example Simplify the following: x2 − x − 6 (1) x2 − 6x + 9 x2 (2) −1 x2 − 1 2 1 (3) 2 − 2 x + 2x + 1 x − x − 2  −1 (4) x − y−1 6 3+ x (5) x x+ x+1 0.2. Algebraic Identities and Algebraic Expressions 3 Solution x2 − x − 6 (x − 3)(x + 2) (1) = x2 − 6x + 9 (x − 3)2 x+2 = x−3 x2 x2 − (x2 − 1) (2) −1 = x2 − 1 x2 − 1 1 = x2 −1 2 1 2 1 (3) − = − x2 + 2x + 1 x2 − x − 2 (x + 1)2 (x + 1)(x − 2) 2(x − 2) − (x + 1) = (x + 1)2 (x − 2) x−5 = (x + 1)2 (x − 2)  −1 !−1 1 (4) x − y−1 = x− y !−1 xy − 1 = y y = xy − 1 6 3x + 6 3+ x x (5) x = x (x + 1) + x x+ x+1 x+1 3x + 6 x = x2 + 2x x+1 3(x + 2) x+1 = · x x (x + 2) 3(x + 1) = x2  3x + 3 FAQ What is expected if we are asked to simplify an expression? For example, in (5), can we give as x2 the answer? 3(x + 1) 3x + 3 Answer There is no definite rule to tell which expression is simpler. For (5), both and are x2 x2 acceptable. Use your own judgment.  4 Chapter 0. Revision Exercise 0.2 1. Expand the following: (a) (2x + 3)2 (b) (3x − y)2 (c) (x + 3y)(x − 3y) (d) (x + 3y)(x + 4y)  √ 2 √  √  (e) 2 x−3 (f) x+5 x−5 2. Factorize the following: (a) x2 − 7x + 12 (b) x2 + x − 6 (c) x2 + 8x + 16 (d) 9x2 + 9x + 2 (e) 9x2 − 6x + 1 (f) 5x2 − 5 (g) 3x2 − 18x + 27 (h) 2x2 − 12x + 16 3. Simplify the following: x2 − x − 6 x2 + 3x − 4 (a) (b) x2 − 7x + 12 2 − x − x2 1 1 2x 4x2 + 4x − x+h x (c) ÷ (d) x2 − 1 x−1 h 0.3 Solving Linear Equations A linear equation in one (real) unknown x is an equation that can be written in the form ax + b = 0, where a and b are constants with a , 0 (in this course, we consider real numbers only; thus a “constant” means a real number that is fixed or given). More generally, an equation in one unknown x is an equation that can be written in the form F(x) = 0 (0.3.1) Remark To be more precise, F should be a function from a subset of R into R. See later chapters for the meanings of “function” and “R”. Definition A solution to Equation (0.3.1) is a real number x0 such that F(x0 ) = 0. 3 Example The equation 2x + 3 = 0 has exactly one solution, namely −. 2 To solve an equation (in one unknown) means to find all solutions to the equation. Definition We say that two equations are equivalent if the have the same solution(s). Example The following two equations are equivalent: (1) 2x + 3 = 0 (2) 2x = −3 To solve an equation, we use properties of real numbers to transform the given equation to equivalent ones until we obtain an equation whose solutions can be found easily. 0.3. Solving Linear Equations 5 Properties of real numbers Let a, b and c be real numbers. Then we have (1) a = b ⇐⇒ a + c = b + c (2) a = b =⇒ ac = bc and ac = bc =⇒ a = b if c , 0 Remark =⇒ is the symbol for “implies”. The first part of Property (2) means that if a = b, then ac = bc. ⇐⇒ is the symbol for “=⇒ and ⇐=”. Property (1) means that if a = b, then a + c = b + c and vice versa, that is, a = b iff a + c = b + c. In mathematics, we use the shorthand “iff ” to stand for “if and only if ”. Example Solve the following equations for x. (1) 3x − 5 = 2(7 − x) (2) a(b + x) = c − dx, where a, b, c and d are real numbers with a + d , 0. Solution (1) Using properties of real numbers, we get 3x − 5 = 2(7 − x) 3x − 5 = 14 − 2x 3x + 2x = 14 + 5 5x = 19 19 x =. 5 19 The solution is. 5 FAQ Can we omit the last sentence? 19 Answer The steps above means that a real number x satisfies 3x − 5 = 2(7 − x) if and only if x =. 5 It’s alright if you stop at the last line in the equation array because it tells that given equation has one and 19 only one solution, namely.  5 FAQ What is the difference between the word “solution” after the question and the word “solution” in the last sentence? Answer They refer to different things. The first “solution” is solution (answer) to the problem (how to solve the problem) whereas the second “solution” means solution to the given equation. Sometimes, an equation may have no solution, for example, x2 + 1 = 0 but the procedures (explanations) to get this information is a solution to the problem.  FAQ Can we use other symbols for the unknown? Answer In the given equation, if x is replaced by another symbol, for example, t, we get the equation 19 3t − 5 = 2(7 − t) in one unknown t. Solution to this equation is also. In writing an equation, the symbol 5 6 Chapter 0. Revision for the unknown is not important. However, if the unknown is expressed in t, all the intermediate steps should use t as unknown: 3t − 5 = 2(7 − t)... 19 t = 5  (2) Using properties of real numbers, we get a(b + x) = c − dx ab + ax = c − dx ax + dx = c − ab (a + d)x = c − ab c − ab x =. a+d  Exercise 0.3 1. Solve the following equations for x. 5x + 3 5x − 4 (a) 2(x + 4) = 7x + 2 (b) −5= 2 4 x x (c) (a + b)x + x2 = (x + b)2 (d) − =c a b where a, b and c are constants with a , b. 0.4 Solving Quadratic Equations A quadratic equation (in one unknown) is an equation that can be written in the form ax2 + bx + c = 0 (0.4.1) where a, b, and c are constants and a , 0. To solve (0.4.1), we can use the Factorization Method or the Quadratic Formula. Factorization Method The method makes use of the following result on product of real numbers: Fact Let a and b be real numbers. Then we have ab = 0 ⇐⇒ a = 0 or b = 0. Example Solve x2 + 2x − 15 = 0. Solution Factorizing the left side, we obtain (x + 5)(x − 3) = 0. Thus x + 5 = 0 or x − 3 = 0. Hence x = −5 or x = 3.  0.4. Solving Quadratic Equations 7 FAQ Can we write “x = −5 and x = 3”? Answer The logic in solving the above equation is as follows x2 + 2x − 15 = 0 ⇐⇒ (x + 5)(x − 3) = 0 ⇐⇒ x + 5 = 0 or x − 3 = 0 ⇐⇒ x = −5 or x = 3 It means that a (real) number x satisfies the given equation if and only if x = −5 or x = 3. The statement “x = −5 or x = 3” cannot be replaced by “x = −5 and x = 3”. To say that there are two solutions, you may write “the solutions are −5 and 3”. Sometimes, we also write “the solutions are x1 = −5 and x2 = 3” which means “there are two solutions −5 and 3 and they are denoted by x1 and x2 respectively”. In Chapter 1, you will learn the concept of sets. To specify a set, we may use “listing” or “description”. The solution set to an equation is the set consisting of all the solutions to the equation. For the above example, we may write the solution set is {−5, 3} (listing); the solution set is {x : x = −5 or x = 3} (description). When we use and, we mean the listing method.  Quadratic Formula Solutions to Equation (0.4.1) are given by √ −b ± b2 − 4ac x=. 2a Remark b2 − 4ac is called the discriminant of (0.4.1). (1) If b2 − 4ac > 0, then (0.4.1) has two distinct solutions. (2) If b2 − 4ac = 0, then (0.4.1) has one solution. (3) If b2 − 4ac < 0, then (0.4.1) has no (real) solution. FAQ Why is “(real)” added? Answer When the real number system is enlarged to the complex number system, (0.4.1) has two complex solutions if b2 − 4ac < 0. However, these solutions are not real numbers. In this course, we consider real numbers only. So you may simply say that there is no solution.  Example Solve the following quadratic equations. (1) 2x2 − 9x + 10 = 0 (2) x2 + 2x + 3 = 0 Solution (1) Using the quadratic formula, we see that the equation has two solutions given by p 9 ± (−9)2 − 4(2)(10) 9 ± 1 x= =. 2(2) 4 8 Chapter 0. Revision 5 Thus the solutions are and 2. 2 (2) Since 22 − 4(1)(3) = −8 < 0, the equation has no solutions.  Example Solve the equation x (x + 2) = x (2x + 3). Solution Expanding both sides, we get x2 + 2x = 2x2 + 3x x2 + x = 0 x (x + 1) = 0 x = 0 or x = −1 The solutions are −1 and 0.  Remark If we cancel the factor x on both sides, we get x + 2 = 2x + 3 which has only one solution. In canceling the factor x, it is assumed that x , 0. However, 0 is a solution and so this solution is lost. To use cancellation, we should write x (x + 2) = x (2x + 3) ⇐⇒ x + 2 = 2x + 3 or x = 0... Example Find the value(s) of k such that the equation 3x2 + kx + 7 = 0 has only one solution. Solution The given equation has only one solution iff k2 − 4(3)(7) = 0. √ Solving, we get k = ± 84.  Exercise 0.4 1. Solve the following equations. (a) 4x − 4x2 = 0 (b) 2 + x − 3x2 = 0 √ (c) 4x (x − 4) = x − 15 (d) x2 + 2 2x + 2 = 0 √ (e) x2 + 2 2x + 3 = 0 (f) x3 − 7x2 + 3x = 0 2. Find the value(s) of k such that the equation x2 + kx + (k + 3) = 0 has only one solution. 3. Find the positive number such that sum of the number and its square is 210. 0.5 Remainder Theorem and Factor Theorem Remainder Theorem If a polynomial p(x) is divided by x − c, where c is a constant, the remainder is p(c). Example Let p(x) = x3 + 3x2 − 2x + 2. Find the remainder when p(x) is divided by x − 2. Solution The remainder is p(2) = 23 + 3(22 ) − 2(2) + 2 = 18.  Factor Theorem (x − c) is a factor of a polynomial p(x) if and only if p(c) = 0. 0.5. Remainder Theorem and Factor Theorem 9 Proof This follows immediately from the remainder theorem because (x−c) is a factor means that the remainder is 0.  Example Let p(x) = x3 + kx2 + x − 6. Suppose that (x + 2) is a factor of p(x). (1) Find the value of k. (2) With the value of k found in (1), factorize p(x). Solution
(1) Since x − (−2) is a factor of p(x), it follows from the Factor Theorem that p(−2) = 0, that is (−2)3 + k(−2)2 + (−2) − 6 = 0. Solving, we get k = 4. (2) Using long division, we get x3 + 4x2 + x − 6 = (x + 2)(x2 + 2x − 3). By inspection, we have p(x) = (x + 2)(x + 3)(x − 1).  FAQ Can we find the quotient (x2 + 2x − 3) by inspection (without using long division)? Answer The “inspection method” that some students use is called the compare coefficient method. Since the quotient is quadratic, it is in the form (ax2 + bx + c). Thus we have x3 + 4x2 + x − 6 = (x + 2)(ax2 + bx + c) (0.5.1) Comparing the coefficient of x3 , we see that a = 1. Similarly, comparing the constant term, we get c = −3. Hence we have x3 + 4x2 + x − 6 = (x + 2)(x2 + bx − 3). To find b, we may compare the x2 term (or the x term) to get 4 = 2 + b, which yields b = 2. Remark The compare coefficient method in fact consists of the following steps: (1) Expand the right side of (0.5.1) to get ax3 + (2a + b)x2 + (2b + c)x + 2c (2) Compare the coefficients of the given polynomial with that obtained in Step (1) to get 1 = a 4 = 2a + b 1 = 2b + c −6 = 2c 10 Chapter 0. Revision (3) Solve the above system to find a, b and c.  Example Factorize p(x) = 2x2 − 3x − 1. Solution Solving p(x) = 0 by the quadratic formula, we get p √ −(−3) ± (−3)2 − 4(2)(−1) 3 ± 17 x= =. 2(2) 4  √ √ 3 + 17   3 − 17  By the Factor Theorem, both x − and x − are factors of p(x). Therefore, we have 4 4 √ ! √ ! 3 + 17 3 − 17 p(x) = 2 x − x− 4 4 where the factor 2 is obtained by comparing the leading term (that is, the x2 term).  FAQ Can we say that p(x) can’t be factorized? Answer Although p(x) does not have factors in the form (x − c) where c is an integer, it has linear factors as given above. If the question asks for factors with integer coefficients, then p(x) cannot be factorized as product of linear factors.  FAQ Can we use the above method to factorize, for example, p(x) = 6x2 + x − 2 ? Answer If you don’t know how to factorize p(x) by inspection, you can solve p(x) = 0 using the quadratic 1 2 formula (or calculators) to get x = or x = −. Therefore (by the Factor Theorem and comparing the leading 2 3 term), we have    1 2 p(x) = 6 x − x+ 2 3 = (2x − 1)(3x + 2).  Exercise 0.5 1. For each of the following expressions, use the factor theorem to find a linear factor (x − c) and hence factorize it completely (using integer coefficients). (a) x3 − 13x + 12 (b) 2x3 − 7x2 + 2x + 3 (c) 2x3 − x2 − 4x + 3 (d) x3 − 5x2 + 11x − 7 2. Solve the following equation for x. (a) 2x3 − 9x2 − 8x + 15 = 0 (b) x3 − 2x + 1 = 0 (c) 2x3 − 5x2 + 2x − 15 = 0 0.6 Solving Linear Inequalities Notation and Terminology Let a and b be real numbers. (1) We say that b is greater than a, or equivalently, that a is less than b to mean that b − a is a positive number. 0.6. Solving Linear Inequalities 11 (2) We write b > a to denote that b is greater than a and we write a < b to denote that a is less than b. (3) We write b ≥ a to denote that b is greater than or equal to a and we write a ≤ b to denote that a is less than or equal to b. A linear inequality in one unknown x is an inequality that can be written in one of the following forms: (1) ax + b < 0 (2) ax + b ≤ 0 (3) ax + b > 0 (4) ax + b ≥ 0 where a and b are constants with a , 0. More generally, an inequality in one unknown x is an inequality that can be written in one of the following forms: (1) F(x) < 0 (2) F(x) ≤ 0 (3) F(x) > 0 (4) F(x) ≥ 0 where F is a function from a subset of R into R. Definition A solution to an inequality F(x) < 0 is a real number x0 such that F(x0 ) < 0. The definition also applies to other types of inequalities. Example Consider the inequality 2x + 3 ≥ 0. By direct substitution, we see that 1 is a solution and −2 is not a solution. To solve an inequality means to find all solutions to the inequality. Rules for Inequalities Let a, b and c be real numbers. Then the following holds. (1) If a < b, then a + c < b + c. (2) If a < b and c > 0, then ac < bc. (3) If a < b and c < 0, then ac > bc. Note: The inequality is reversed. (4) If a < b and b ≤ c, then a < c. 1 1 (5) If a < b and a and b have the same sign, then >. a b √n √n (6) If 0 < a < b and n is a positive integer, then an < bn and a< b. Terminology Two numbers have the same sign means that both of them are positive or both of them are negative. Remark One common mistake in solving inequalities is to apply a rule with the wrong sign (positive or negative). For example, if c is negative, it would be wrong to apply Rule (2). Example Solve the following inequalities. (1) 2x + 1 > 7(x + 3) 12 Chapter 0. Revision (2) 3(x − 2) + 5 > 3x + 7 Solution (1) Using rules for inequalities, we get 2x + 1 > 7(x + 3) 2x + 1 > 7x + 21 1 − 21 > 7x − 2x −20 > 5x −4 > x. The solutions are all the real numbers x such that x < −4, that is, all real numbers less than −4. (2) Expanding the left side, we get 3(x − 2) + 5 = 3x − 1 which is always less than the right side. Thus the inequality has no solution.  Exercise 0.6 1. Solve the following inequalities for x. 1 − x 3x − 7 √ (a) ≥ (b) 2(3 − x) ≤ 3(1 − x) 2 3 3x 2x (c) +31 1−x 2x + 3 0.7 Lines A linear equation in two unknowns x and y is an equation that can be written in the form ax + by + c = 0 (0.7.1) where a, b and c are constants with a, b not both 0. More generally, an equation in two unknowns x and y is an equation that can be written in the form F(x, y) = 0, (0.7.2) where F is a function (from a collection of ordered pairs into R). Definition An ordered pair (of real numbers) is a pair of real numbers x0 , y0 enclosed inside parenthesis: (x0 , y0 ). Remark Two ordered pairs (x0 , y0 ) and (x1 , y1 ) are equal if and only if x0 = x1 and y0 = y1. For example, the ordered pairs (1, 2) and (2, 1) are not equal. Definition A solution to Equation (0.7.2) is an ordered pair (x0 , y0 ) such that F(x0 , y0 ) = 0. Example Consider the equation 2x + 3y − 4 = 0. By direct substitution, we see that (2, 0) is a solution whereas (1, 2) is not a solution. 0.7. Lines 13 Rectangular Coordinate System Given a plane, there is a one-to-one correspondence between points in the plane and ordered pairs of real numbers (see the construction below). The plane described in this way is called the Cartesian plane or the rectangular coordinate plane. First we construct a horizontal line and a vertical line on the plane. Their point of intersection is called the origin. The horizontal line is called the x-axis and the vertical line y-axis. For each point P in the plane we can label it by two real numbers. To this ends, we draw perpendiculars from P to the x-axis and y-axis. The first per- 3 pendicular meets the x-axis at a point which can be represented by a real number a. Similarly, the second perpendicular meets 2 the y-axis at a point which can be represented by a real number b. Moreover, the ordered pair of numbers a and b determines P 1 uniquely, that is, if P1 and P2 are distinct points in the plane, then the ordered pairs corresponding to P1 and P2 are different. There- fore, we may identify the point P with the ordered pair (a, b) and -1 1 2 3 4 we write P = (a, b) or P(a, b). The numbers a and b are called the -1 x-coordinate and y-coordinate of P respectively. Figure 0.1 The x- and y-axes divide the (rectangular) coordinate plane into 4 regions (called quadrants): Quadrant I = {(a, b) : a > 0 and b > 0}, Quadrant II = {(a, b) : a < 0 and b > 0}, Quadrant III = {(a, b) : a < 0 and b < 0}, Quadrant IV = {(a, b) : a > 0 and b < 0}. Lines in the Coordinate Plane Consider the following equation Ax + By + C = 0 (0.7.3) where A, B and C are constants with A, B not both zero. It is not difficult to see that the equation has infinitely many solutions. Each solution (x0 , y0 ) represents a point in the (rectangular) coordinate plane. The collection of all solutions (points) form a line, called the graph of Equation (0.7.3). Moreover, every line in the plane can be represented in this way. For example, if ` is the line passing through the origin and making an angle of 45 degrees with the positive x-axis, then it is the graph of the equation y = x. Although this equation is not in the form (0.7.3), it can be written as (1)x + (−1)y + 0 = 0, that is, x − y = 0. Terminology If a line ` is represented by an equation in the form (0.7.3), we say that the equation is a general linear form for `. Remark In Equation (0.7.3), C (1) if A = 0, then the equation reduces to y = − and its graph is a horizontal line; B C (2) if B = 0, then the equation reduces to x = − and its graph is a vertical line. A 14 Chapter 0. Revision Example Consider the line ` given by 2x + 3y − 4 = 0 (0.7.4) For each of the following points, determine whether it lies on ` or not. (1) A = (4, −1) (2) B = (5, −2) Solution (1) Putting (x, y) = (4, −1) into (0.7.4), we get L.S. = 2(4) + 3(−1) − 4 = 1 , 0. Therefore A does not lie on `. (2) Putting (x, y) = (5, −2) into (0.7.4), we get L.S. = 2(5) + 3(−2) − 4 = 0 = R.S. Therefore B lies on `.  Example Consider the line ` given by x + 2y − 4 = 0 (0.7.5) Find the points of intersection of ` with the x-axis and the y-axis. Solution Putting y = 0 into (0.7.5), we get x−4=0 from which we obtain x = 4. The point of intersection of ` with the x-axis is (4, 0). Putting x = 0 into (0.7.5), we get 2y − 4 = 0 from which we obtain y = 2. The point of intersection of ` with the y-axis is (0, 2).  Remark The point (4, 0) and (0, 2) are called the x-intercept and y-intercept of ` respectively. FAQ Can we say that the x-intercept is 4 etc? Answer Some authors define x-intercept to be the x-coordinate of point of intersection etc. Using this conven- tion, the x-intercept is 4 and the y-intercept is 2.  0.7. Lines 15 Definition For a non-vertical line `, its slope (denoted by m` or simply m) is defined to be y2 − y1 m` = x2 − x1 where P1 (x1 , y1 ) and P2 (x2 , y2 ) are any two distinct points lying on `. Remark The number m` is well-defined, that is, its value is independent of the choice of P1 and P2. FAQ What is the slope of a vertical line? Answer The slope of a vertical line is undefined because if P1 = (x1 , y1 ) and P2 = (x2 , y2 ) lie on a vertical line, then x1 = x2 and so y2 − y1 y2 − y1 = x2 − x1 0 which is undefined. Some students say that the slope is infinity, denoted by ∞. However, ∞ is not a number; it is just a notation. Moreover, infinity is ambiguous—does it mean positive infinity (going up, very steep) or negative infinity (going down, very steep)?  Example Find the slope of the line (given by) 2x − 5y + 9 = 0. Solution Take any two points on the line, for example, take P1 = (−2, 1) and P2 = (3, 3). The slope m of the line is 3−1 2 m= =. 3 − (−2) 5 FAQ Can we take other points on the line? 9
9
Answer You can take any two points. For example, taking A = 0, and B = − , 0 , we get 5 2 9 9 5 −0 5 2 m= = =. 0− (− 92 ) 9 2 5  Equations for Lines Let ` be a non-vertical line in the coordinate plane. Suppose P = (x1 , y1 ) is a point lying on ` and m is the slope of `. Then an equation for ` can be written in the form y − y1 = m(x − x1 ) (0.7.6) called a point-slope form for `. Remark Since there are infinitely many points on a line, ` has infinitely many point-slope forms. However, we also say that (0.7.6) is the point-slope form of `. FAQ Can we write the equation in the following form? y − y1 =m (0.7.7) x − x1 Answer Equation (0.7.7) represents a line minus one point. If you put (x, y) = (x1 , y1 ) into (0.7.7), the 0 left-side is which is undefined. This means that the point (x1 , y1 ) does not lie on L. However, once you 0 get (0.7.7), you can obtain the point-slope form (0.7.6) easily.  16 Chapter 0. Revision Suppose the y-intercept of ` is (0, b) and the slope of ` is m. Then a point-slope form for ` is y − b = m(x − 0) which can be written as y = mx + b called the slope-intercept form for `. Example Find the slope of the line having general linear form 2x + 3y − 4 = 0. Solution Rewrite the given equation in slope-intercept form: 2x + 3y − 4 = 0 3y = −2x + 4 2 4 y = − x+ 3 3 2 The slope of the line is −.  3 Example Let ` be the line that passes through the points A(1, 3) and B(2, −4). Find an equation in general linear form for `. Solution Using the points A and B, we get the slope m of ` 3 − (−4) m= = −7. 1−2 Using the slope m and the point A (or B), we get the point slope form y − 3 = −7(x − 1). (0.7.8) Expanding and rearranging terms, (0.7.8) can be written in the following general linear form 7x + y − 10 = 0.  Parallel and Perpendicular Lines Let `1 and `2 be (non-vertical) lines with slopes m1 and m2 respec- tively. Then (1) `1 and `2 are parallel if and only if m1 = m2 ; (2) `1 and `2 are perpendicular to each other if and only if m1 · m2 = −1. Note If `1 and `2 are vertical, then they are parallel. If `1 is vertical and `2 is horizontal (or the other way round), then they are perpendicular to each other. 0.8. Pythagoras Theorem, Distance Formula and Circles 17 Example Find equations in general linear form for the two lines passing through the point (3, −2) such that one is parallel to the line y = 3x + 1 and the other is perpendicular to it. Solution Let `1 (respectively `2 ) be the line that passes through the point (3, −2) and parallel (respectively perpendicular) to the given line. It is clear that the slope of the given line is 3. Thus the slope of `1 is 3 and the 1 slope of `2 is −. From these, we get the point-slope forms for `1 and `2 : 3 1 y − (−2) = 3(x − 3) and y − (−2) = − (x − 3) 3 respectively. Expanding and rearranging terms, we get the following linear forms 3x − y − 11 = 0 and x + 3y + 3 = 0 for `1 and `2 respectively.  Exercise 0.7 1. For each of the following, find an equation of the line satisfying the given conditions. Give your answer in general linear form. (a) Passing through the origin and (−2, 3). (b) With slope 2 and passing through (5, −1). (c) With slope −3 and y-intercept (0, 7). (d) Passing through (−3, 2) and parallel to 2x − y − 3 = 0. (e) Passing through (1, 4) and perpendicular to x + 3y = 0. (f) Passing through (1, −1) and perpendicular to the y-axis. 0.8 Pythagoras Theorem, Distance Formula and Circles Pythagoras Theorem Let a, b and c be the (lengths of the) sides of a right-angled triangle where c is the hypotenuse. Then we have a2 + b2 = c2. c b a Figure 0.2 Distance Formula Let P = (x1 , y1 ) and Q = (x2 , y2 ). Then the distance PQ between P and Q is q PQ = (x2 − x1 )2 + (y2 − y1 )2. Q(x2 , y2 ) P(x1 , y1 ) Figure 0.3 18 Chapter 0. Revision Equation of Circles Let 𝒞 be the circle with center at C(h, k) and radius r. Then an equation for 𝒞 is (x − h)2 + (y − k)2 = r2. (0.8.1) Proof Let P(x, y) be any point on the circle. Since the distance from P P(x, y) to the center C is r, using the distance formula, we get q (x − h)2 + (y − k)2 = r. C(h, k) Squaring both sides yields (0.8.1).  Figure 0.4 Example Find the center and radius of the circle given by x2 − 4x + y2 + 6y − 12 = 0. Solution Using the completing square method, the given equation can be written in the form (0.8.1). x2 − 4x + y2 + 6y = 12 (x2 − 4x + 4) + (y2 + 6y + 9) = 12 + 4 + 9 (x − 2)2 + (y + 3)2 = 25 (x − 2)2 + (y − (−3))2 = 52 The center is (2, −3) and the radius is 5.  FAQ How do we get the number “9” etc (the numbers added to both sides)? Answer We want to find a number (denoted by a) such that (y2 + 6y + a) is a complete square. That is, y2 + 6y + a = (y + b)2 (0.8.2) for some number b. Expanding the right-side of (0.8.2) (do this in your head) and comparing the coefficients of y on both sides, we get 2b = 6, that is, b = 3. Hence comparing the constant terms on both sides, we get a = b2 = 9. Summary a = square of half of the coefficient of y.  Exercise 0.8 1. For each of the following pairs of points, find the distance between them. (a) (−3, 4) and the origin (b) (4, 0) and (0, −7) (c) (7, 5) and (12, 17) (d) (−2, 9) and (3, −1) 2. For each of the following circles, find its radius and center. (a) x2 + y2 − 4y + 1 = 0 (b) x2 + y2 + 4x − 2y − 4 = 0 (c) 2x2 + 2y2 + 4x − 2y + 1 = 0 3. For each of the following, find the distance from the given point to the given line. (a) (−2, 3) and the y-axis (b) the origin and x + y = 1 (c) (1, 2) and 2x + y − 6 = 0 0.9. Parabola 19 0.9 Parabola The graph of y = ax2 + bx + c where a , 0, is a parabola. The parabola intersects the x-axis at two distinct points if b2 − 4ac > 0. It touches the x-axis (one intersection point only) if b2 − 4ac = 0 and does not intersect the x-axis if b2 − 4ac < 0. If a > 0, the parabola opens upward and there is a lowest point (called the vertex of the parabola). If a < 0, the parabola opens downward and there is a highest point (vertex). a>0 a 0, then y ≥ k and thus (h, k) is the lowest point; if a < 0, then y ≤ k and thus (h, k) is the highest point. Example Consider the parabola given by y = x2 + 6x + 5. Find its vertex and axis of symmetry. Solution Using the completing square method, the given equation can be written in the form (0.9.1). y = x2 + 6x + 5 y = (x2 + 6x + 9) − 9 + 5 y = (x + 3)2 − 4
y = x − (−3) 2 − 4. The vertex is (−3, −4) and the axis of symmetry is the line given by x = −3 (the vertical line that passes through the vertex).  FAQ In the above example, the coefficient of x2 is 1, what should we do if it is not 1?  20 Chapter 0. Revision Answer To illustrate the procedure, let’s consider y = 2x2 + 3x − 4. To rewrite the equation in the form (0.9.1), b
consider the first two terms and rewrite it in the form a x2 + x. a  3  y = 2 x2 + x − 4 2 3  3 2  3 2 ! y = 2 x2 + x + − −4 2 4 4 3  3 2 9 ! 2 y = 2 x + x+ − −4 2 4 16  3 2 9 y = 2 x+ − −4 4 8  3 2 41 y = 2 x+ − 4 8  Exercise 0.9 1. For each of the following parabolas, find its x-intercept(s), y-intercept and vertex. (a) y = x2 + 4x − 12 (b) y = −x2 + 6x − 7 (c) y = 2x2 + 2x + 7 0.10 Systems of Equations A system of two equations in two unknowns x and y can be written as F1 (x, y) = 0 F2 (x, y) = 0. Usually, each equation represents a curve in the coordinate plane. Solving the system means to find all ordered pairs (x0 , y0 ) such that F1 (x0 , y0 ) = 0 and F2 (x0 , y0 ) = 0, that is, to find all points P(x0 , y0 ) that lies on the intersection of the two curves. To solve a system of two linear equations (with two unknowns x and y) ax + by + c = 0 dx + ey + f = 0, we can use elimination or substitution. Example Solve the following system of equations 2x + 3y = 7 (0.10.1) 3x + 5y = 11 (0.10.2) Solution (Elimination) Multiply (0.10.1) and (0.10.2) by 3 and 2 respectively, we get 6x + 9y = 21 (0.10.3) 6x + 10y = 22 (0.10.4)  0.10. Systems of Equations 21 Subtracting (0.10.3) from (0.10.4), we get y = 1. Substituting y = 1 back into (0.10.1) or (0.10.2) and solving, we get x = 2. The solution to the system is (2, 1). Remark The point (2, 1) is the intersection point of the lines given by 2x + 3y = 7 and 3x + 5y = 11. 7 − 3y (Substitution) From (0.10.1), we get x =. Substituting into (0.10.2), we get 2   7 − 3y 3 + 5y = 11 2 3(7 − 3y) + 10y = 22 y = 1 and we can proceed as in the elimination method.  To solve a system in two unknowns, with one linear equation and one quadratic equation ax + by + c = 0 dx2 + exy + f y2 + gx + hy + k = 0 we can use substitution. From the linear equation, we can express x in terms of y (or vice versa). Substituting into the quadratic equation, we get a quadratic equation in y which can be solved by factorization or by formula. Substituting the value(s) of y back into the linear equation, we get the corresponding value(s) of x. Example Solve the following system of equations x − 2y = 4 (0.10.5) 2 2 x +y = 5 (0.10.6) Solution From (0.10.5), we get x = 4 + 2y. Substituting into (0.10.6), we get (4 + 2y)2 + y2 = 5 5y2 + 16y + 11 = 0. 11 Solving we get y = −1 or y = −. 5 11 2 Substituting y = −1 into (0.10.5), we get x = 2; substituting y = − into (0.10.5), we get x = −. 5 5 2 11
The solutions to the system are (2, −1) and − , −.  5 5 Remark If we substitute y = −1 into (0.10.6), we get two values of x, one of which should be rejected. The solutions are the intersection points of the line x − 2y = 4 and the circle x2 + y2 = 5. Example Find the point(s) of intersection, if any, of the line and the parabola given by x + y − 1 = 0 and y = x2 + 2 respectively. 22 Chapter 0. Revision Solution From the equation of the line, we get y = 1 − x. Putting into the equation of the parabola, we get 1 − x = x2 + 2 0 = x2 + x + 1. Since ∆ = 12 − 4(1)(1) < 0, the above quadratic equation has no solution. Hence the system x+y−1 = 0 y = x2 + 2 has no solution, that is, the line and the parabola do not intersect.  Exercise 0.10 1. Consider a rectangle with perimeter 28 cm and diagonal 10 cm. Find the length and width of the rectangle.  Chapter 1 Sets, Real Numbers and Inequalities 1.1 Sets 1.1.1 Introduction Idea of definition A set is a collection of objects. This is not a definition because we have not defined what a collection is. If we give a definition for collec- tion, it must involve something that have not been defined. It is impossible to define everything. In mathematics, set is a fundamental concept that cannot be defined. The idea of definition given above describes what a set is using daily language. This helps us “understand” the meaning of a set. Terminology An object in a set is called an element or a member of the set. To describe sets, we can use listing or description. [Listing] To denote a set with finitely many elements, we can list all the elements of the set and enclose them by braces. For example, {1, 2, 3} is the set which has exactly three elements, namely 1, 2 and 3. If we want to denote the set whose elements are the first one hundred positive integers, it is impractical to write down all the elements. Instead, we write {1, 2, 3,... , 99, 100}, or simply {1, 2,... , 100}. The three dots “...”(read “and so on”) means that the pattern is repeated, up to the number(s) listed at the end. Suppose in a problem, we consider a set, say {1, 2,... , 100}. We may have to refer to the set later many times. Instead of writing {1, 2,... , 100} repeatedly, we can give it a name by using a symbol to represent the set. Usually, we use small letters (eg. a, b,...) to denote objects and capital letters (eg. A, B,...) to denote sets. For example, we may write “Let A = {1, 2,... , 100}.”  24 Chapter 1. Sets, Real Numbers and Inequalities which means that the set {1, 2,... , 100} is given the “name” A. If we want to refer to the set later, we can just write A. For example, “Let A = {1, 2,... , 100}. Then 100 is an element of A, but 101 is not an element of A.” If we consider another set, say {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and want to give it a name, we must not use the symbol A again, because in the problem, A always means the set {1, 2,... , 100}. For example, “Let A = {1, 2,... , 100}. Let B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}. Then every element of B is also an element of A. But there are elements of A that are not elements of B.” Remark The equality sign “=” can be used in several ways as the following examples illustrate. (1) 1 + 2 = 3. (2) x2 + 1 = 5. (3) Let A = {1, 2, 3}. The equality sign in (1) means equality of two quantities: the quantity on the left and the quantity on the right are equal. The equality sign in (2) is an equality in an equation. It is true when x = 2 (for example) and it is not true when x = 1 (for example). Instead of using the equality sign, some authors use “==”. The equation in (2) may be written as (20 ) x2 + 1 == 5. The equality sign in (3) has a different meaning. The sentence in (3) means that the set {1, 2, 3} is denoted by A. The symbol “=” assigns a name to an object (a set is also an object). The name is written on the left side and the object on the right side. Instead of using the equality sign, some authors use the symbol “:=”. The sentence in (3) may be written as (30 ) Let A := {1, 2, 3}. In this course, we will not use the notations “:=” and “==”. Readers can determine the meaning of “=” from the context. Notation Given an object x and a set A, either x is an element of A or x is not an element of A. (1) If x is an element of A, we write x ∈ A (read “x belongs to A”). (2) If x is not an element of A, we write x < A (read “x does not belong to A”). There is a set that has no element. It is called the empty set, denoted by ∅. This is a Scandinavian letter, a zero 0 together with a slash /. Definition The set that has no element is called the empty set and is denoted by ∅. Remark Because the empty set has no element, if we list all the elements of it and enclose “them” by braces, we get { }. This is an alternative notation for the empty set. [Description] Another way to denote a set is to describe a common property of the elements of the set, using the following notation: {x : P(x)} or {x | P(x)} 1.1. Sets 25 read “the set of all x such that P(x) (is true)”. For example, the set whose elements are the first one hundred positive integers can be expressed as (†) {x : x is a positive integer less than 101} In considering “property”, it is understood that the property applies to a certain collection of objects only. For example, when we say “an old person” (a person is said to be old if his or her age is 65 or above), the property of being “old” is applied to people. It is meaningless to say “this is an old atom” (unless we have a definition which tells whether an atom is old or not). The property of being a positive integer less than 101 is applied to numbers. In this course, we consider real numbers only. The set of all real numbers is denoted by R. In considering the set given in (†), it is understood that x is a real number. To make this explicit, we write (‡) {x ∈ R : x is a positive integer less than 101} read “the set of all x belonging to R such that x is a positive integer less than 101”. Notation (1) The set of all real numbers is denoted by R. (2) The set of all rational numbers is denoted by Q. (3) The set of all integers is denoted by Z. (4) The set of all positive integers is denoted by Z+. (5) The set of all natural numbers is denoted by N. Definition p (1) A rational number is a number that can be written in the form where p and q are integers and q , 0. q (2) Positive integers together with 0 are called natural numbers. Remark Some authors do not include 0 as natural number. In that case, N means the set of all positive integers. Example (1) To say that 2 is a natural number, we may write 2 ∈ N. (2) To say that 2 is a rational number, we may write 2 ∈ Q. 2 6 Note: The number 2 is a rational number because it can be written as or etc. 1 3 (3) To say that π is not a rational number, we may write π < Q. 22 22 Note: π , ; the rational number is only an approximation to π. 7 7 Definition Let A and B be sets. If every element of A is also an element of B and vice versa, then we say that A and B are equal, denoted by A = B. Remark In mathematics, definitions are important. Students who want to take more courses in mathematics must pay attention to definitions. Understand the meaning, give examples, give nonexamples. 26 Chapter 1. Sets, Real Numbers and Inequalities In the definition, the first sentence “Let A and B be sets” describes the setting. The definition for equality applies to sets only and does not apply to other objects. Of course, we can consider equality of other objects, but it is another definition. In the first sentence “Let A and B be sets”, the use of plural “sets” does not mean that A and B are two different sets. It also includes the case where A and B are the same set. The following are alternative ways to say this: ♦ Let A and B be set(s). ♦ Let A be a set and let B be a set. However, these alternative ways are rather cumbersome and will not be used in most situations. Some students may not be familiar with the use of the word “let”. It is used very often in mathematics. Consider the following sentences: ♦ Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}. ♦ Let A be a set. The word “let” appears in both sentences. However, the meanings of “let” in the two sentences are quite different. In the first sentence, “let” means denote whereas in the second sentence, it means suppose. The definition for equality of sets can also be stated in the following ways: ♦ Suppose A and B are sets. If every element of A is also an element of B and vice versa, then we say that A and B are equal. ♦ If A and B are sets and if every element of A is also an element of B and vice versa, then we say that A and B are equal. The definition can also be stated in a way that the assumption that A and B are sets is combined with the condition for equality of A and B. ♦ If every element of a set A is also an element of a set B and vice versa, then we say that A and B are equal. The definition tells that if A and B are sets having the same elements, then A = B. Conversely, it also tells that if A and B are sets and A = B, then A and B have the same elements because this is the condition to check whether A and B are equal. Some mathematicians give the definition using iff: ♦ Let A and B be sets. We say that A and B are equal if and only if every element of A is also an element of B and vice versa. Sometimes, we also give definition of a concept together with its “opposite”. The following is a definition of equality of sets together with its opposite. In this course, we will use the following format (a) describe the setting; (b) give condition(s) for the concept; (c) give condition(s) for the opposite concept, whenever it is appropriate. Definition Let A and B be sets. If every element of A is also an element of B and vice versa, then we say that 1.1. Sets 27 A and B are equal, denoted by A = B. Otherwise, we say that A and B are unequal, denoted by A , B. Example Let A = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9} and let B = {x ∈ Z : x is a positive odd number less than 10}. Then we have A = B, that is, A and B are equal. This is because every element of A is also an element of B and vice versa. Recall: Z is the set of all integers. Thus B is the set of all integers that are positive, odd and less than 10. Remark To prove that the sets A and B in the above example are equal, we check whether the condition given in the definition is satisfied. This is called proof by definition. Example Let A = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9} and let B = {x ∈ Z+ : x is a prime number less than 10}. Then we have A , B. Recall: Z+ is the set of all positive integers. Proof The number 9 is an element of A, but it is not an element of B. Therefore, it is not true that every element of A is also an element of B. Hence we have A , B.  FAQ In the above two examples, the assertions are quite obvious. Do we need to prove them? Answer Sometimes, mathematicians also write “obvious” in proofs of theorems. To some people, a result may be obvious; but, it may not be obvious to other people. If you say obvious, make sure that it is really obvious— if your classmates ask you why, you should be able to explain to them. It is impractical to explain everything. In proving theorems or giving solutions to examples, reasons that are “obvious” will not be given. When you answer questions, you should use your own judgment.  Remark Because it is impractical (in fact, impossible) to explain everything, discussion below will not be so detail as that above. If you don’t understand a concept, read the definition again. Try different ways to understand it. Relate it with what you have learnt. Guess what the meaning is. See whether your guess is correct if you apply it to examples... Example Let A = {1, 2, 3} and let B = {1, 3, 2}. Then we have A = B. Proof Obvious (use definition).  The above example shows that in listing elements of a set, order is not important. It should also be noted that in listing elements, there is no need to repeat the elements. For example, {1, 2, 3, 2, 1} and {1, 2, 3} are the same set. Definition Let A and B be sets. If every element of A is also an element of B, then we say that A is a subset of B, denoted by A ⊆ B. Otherwise, we say that A is not a subset of B, denoted by A * B. Note (1) A ⊆ A. (2) A = B if and only if A ⊆ B and B ⊆ A. (3) A * B means that there is at least one element of A that is not an element of B. 28 Chapter 1. Sets, Real Numbers and Inequalities Remark Instead of A ⊆ B, some authors use A ⊂ B to denote A is a subset of B. Example Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, B = {1, 3, 5} and C = {2, 4, 6}. Then we have B ⊆ A and C * A. 1 2 The relation between A, B and C can be described by the dia- 3 6 gram shown in Figure 1.1. 4 5 Figure 1.1 FAQ For the given sets A, B and C, we also have the following: (1) A * B (2) A * C (3) C * B (4) B * C Why are they omitted? Answer Good and correct observation. Given three sets, there are six ways to pair them up. The example just illustrates the meaning of ⊆ and *.  1.1.2 Set Operations Definition Let A and B be sets. (1) The intersection of A and B, denoted by A ∩ B, is the set whose elements are those belonging to both A and B, that is, A ∩ B = {x : x ∈ A and x ∈ B}. (2) The union of A and B, denoted by A ∪ B, is the set whose elements are those belonging to either A or B or both A and B, that is A ∪ B = {x : x ∈ A or x ∈ B}. Remark In mathematics, “P or Q” means “either P or Q or both P and Q”. Example Let A = {2, 3, 5}, B = {2, 5, 6, 8} and C = {1, 2, 3}. Find the following sets. (1) A ∩ B (2) A ∪ B (3) (A ∩ B) ∩ C (4) A ∩ (B ∩ C) Solution (1) A ∩ B = {2, 5} (2) A ∪ B = {2, 3, 5, 6, 8} (3) (A ∩ B) ∩ C = {2, 5} ∩ {1, 2, 3} = {2} 1.1. Sets 29 (4) A ∩ (B ∩ C) = {2, 3, 5} ∩ {2} = {2}  Note Given any sets A, B and C, we always have (A ∩ B) ∩ C = A ∩ (B ∩ C) and (A ∪ B) ∪ C = A ∪ (B ∪ C). Thus we may write A ∩ B ∩ C and A ∪ B ∪ C without ambiguity. We say that set intersection and set union are associative. Definition Let A and B be sets. The relative complement of B in A, denoted by A \ B or A − B (read “A setminus (or minus) B”), is the set whose elements are those belonging to A but not belonging to B, that is, A \ B = {x ∈ A : x < B}. Example Let A = {a, b, c} and B = {c, d, e}. Then we have A \ B = {a, b}. For each problem, we will consider a set that is “large” enough, containing all objects under consideration. Such a set is called a universal set and is usually denoted by U. In this case, all sets under consideration are subsets of U and they can be written in the form {x ∈ U : P(x)}. Example In considering addition and subtraction of whole numbers (0, 1, 2, 3, 4,...), we may use Z (the set of all integers) as a universal set. (1) The set of all positive even numbers can be written as {x ∈ Z : x > 0 and x is divisible by 2}. (2) The set of all prime numbers can be written as {x ∈ Z : x > 0 and x has exactly two divisors}. Definition Let U be a universal set and let B be a subset of U. Then the set U \ B is called the complement of B (in U) and is denoted by B0 (or Bc ). Example Let U = Z+ , the set of all positive integers. Let B be the set of all positive even numbers. Then B0 is the set of all positive odd numbers. Example Let U = {1, 2, 3,... , 12} and let A = {x ∈ U : x is a prime number} B = {x ∈ U : x is an even number} C = {x ∈ U : x is divisible by 3}. Find the following sets. (1) A ∪ B (2) A ∩ C (3) B ∩ C (4) (A ∪ B) ∩ C (5) (A ∩ C) ∪ (B ∩ C) 30 Chapter 1. Sets, Real Numbers and Inequalities (6) (A ∪ B)0 (7) A0 ∩ B0 Solution Note that A = {2, 3, 5, 7, 11} B = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12} C = {3, 6, 9, 12}. (1) A ∪ B = {2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10, 11, 12} (2) A ∩ C = {3} (3) B ∩ C = {6, 12} (4) (A ∪ B) ∩ C = {2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10, 11, 12} ∩ {3, 6, 9, 12} = {3, 6, 12} (5) (A ∩ C) ∪ (B ∩ C) = {3} ∪ {6, 12} = {3, 6, 12} (6) (A ∪ B)0 = {2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10, 11, 12}0 = {1, 9} (7) A0 ∩ B0 = {1, 4, 6, 8, 9, 10, 12} ∩ {1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11} = {1, 9}  Remark In the above example, we have (A ∪ B)0 = A0 ∩ B0 and (A ∪ B) ∩ C = (A ∩ C) ∪ (B ∩ C). In fact, these equalities are true in general. Venn Diagrams A U A Venn diagram is a very useful and simple device to rep- resent sets graphically. In a Venn diagram, the universal set U is usually repre- sented by a rectangle. Inside this rectangle, subsets of the C universal set are represented by circles, rectangles, or some other geometrical figures. B Figure 1.2 We can use Venn diagrams to obtain useful formulas for set operations. In Figure 1.3(a), the portion shaded by horizontal lines represents A ∪ B and that by vertical lines repre- sents C; thus the portion shaded by both horizontal and vertical lines represents (A ∪ B) ∩ C. In Figure 1.3(b), the portion shaded by horizontal lines represents A ∩ C and that by vertical lines repre- sents B ∩ C; thus the portion shaded by vertical or horizontal lines represents (A ∩ C) ∪ (B ∩ C). 1.1. Sets 31 A U A U C C B B Figure 1.3(a) Figure 1.3(b) From the two figures, we see that (A ∪ B) ∩ C = (A ∩ C) ∪ (B ∩ C). Venn diagrams help us in a visual way to identify the above formulas. However, in order to prove these formulas in a rigorous manner, one should use formal mathematical logic. Proof Using definition of set operations, we have x ∈ (A ∪ B) ∩ C ⇐⇒ x ∈ A ∪ B and x ∈ C ⇐⇒ (x ∈ A or x ∈ B) and x ∈ C ⇐⇒ (x ∈ A and x ∈ C) or (x ∈ B and x ∈ C) ⇐⇒ (x ∈ A ∩ C) or (x ∈ B ∩ C) ⇐⇒ x ∈ (A ∩ C) ∪ (B ∩ C) This means that every element of (A ∪ B) ∩ C is also an element of (A ∩ C) ∪ (B ∩ C) and vice versa. Thus the two sets are equal.  Remark For more than three subsets of U, observations obtained from Venn diagrams may not be correct. For four subsets, we need to draw 3-dimensional Venn diagrams. Exercise 1.1 1. Let A = {x ∈ U : x ≤ 10}, B = {x ∈ U : x is a prime number} and C = {x ∈ U : x is an even number}, where U = {1, 2, 3,... , 19} is the universal set. Find the following sets. (a) A∩B (b) A∩C (c) B∩C (d) A∪B (e) A∪C (f) B∪C (g) A∪ B∪C (h) A∩ B∩C (i) (A ∪ B) ∩ C (j) (A ∩ B) ∪ C (k) A ∩ B0 (l) A0 ∩ B0 ∗ 2. Let A, B and C be subsets of a universal set U. For each of the following statements, determine whether it is true or not. 32 Chapter 1. Sets, Real Numbers and Inequalities (a) A − B = A0 ∩ B (b) (A ∪ B) ∩ C = A ∪ (B ∩ C) (c) (A0 ∪ B0 ) ∩ B = B − A A statement above is true means that it is true for all possible choices of A, B, C and U. To show that the statement is false, it is enough to give a counterexample. To show that it is true, you can draw a Venn diagram to convince yourself; but to be more rigorous, you should use formal mathematical logic. 1.2 Real Numbers 1.2.1 The Number Systems (1) The numbers 0, 1, 2, 3,... are called natural numbers. The set of all natural numbers is denoted by N, that is, N = {0, 1, 2, 3,...}. Remark The three dots “...” means that the pattern is repeated indefinitely. FAQ In some books, N is defined to be {1, 2, 3,...}. Which one should we follow? Answer Some authors do not include 0 in N. This is just a convention; once we know the definition, it will not cause any problem.  (2) The numbers 0, 1, −1, 2, −2,... are called integers. The set of all integers is denoted by Z, that is, Z = {· · · , −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, · · · }. p (3) Numbers in the form where p, q ∈ Z and q , 0 are called rational numbers. The set of all rational q numbers is denoted by Q, that is, np o Q= : p, q are integers, and q , 0. q 2 Note Z ⊆ Q, that is, every integer is a rational number. For example, the integer 2 can be written as 1 and is therefore a rational number. 3 All rational numbers can be represented by decimal numbers that terminate, such as = 0.75, or by 4 4 non-terminating but repeating decimals, such as = 0.363636 · · ·. 11 Numbers that can be represented by non-terminating and non-repeating decimals are called irrational √ numbers. For example, π and 2 are irrational numbers. The following shows the first 50 decimals of π: π = 3.14159265358979323846264338327950288419716939937511... Remark The proof for the fact that π is irrational is difficult. (4) Rational numbers together with irrational numbers are called real numbers. The set of all real numbers is denoted by R. 1.2. Real Numbers 33