Basic Nutrition PDF

BASIC NUTRITION NSC 204 Mrs Offu I PROTEIN Proteins are large, complex molecules that play many critical roles in the body. They do most of the work in cells and are required for the structure, function, and regulation of the body’s tissue...

BASIC NUTRITION NSC 204 Mrs Offu I PROTEIN Proteins are large, complex molecules that play many critical roles in the body. They do most of the work in cells and are required for the structure, function, and regulation of the body’s tissues and organs Proteins are organic molecules made up of amino acids – the building blocks of life..“Protein”, is derived from a Greek word, which means to come first. Gerardus Mulder a Dutch Chemist (1802 -1880) coined the term in 1838 because he believed that proteins were the most important of all known substance in the organic kingdom. What are proteins? Simple put proteins are macromolecules composed of amino acids. Amino acids are commonly called protein’s building blocks. Proteins are crucial for the nourishment, renewal, and continuance of life.Protein is exceeded only by water in the body and is distributed in the following manner one third in the muscles (1/3), 1/5 in the bones and cartilage, 1/10 in the skin and the remainder in other tissues and body fluids. Urine and bile are the only fluid in the body that do not normally contain protein. Just like carbohydrates and fats, proteins contain the elements carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, but proteins are the only macronutrient that also contain nitrogen as part of their core structure. Most proteins also containing sulfur. Further, there are proteins which also contain phosphorus, iodine, iron, copper and zinc. The percentages varies in each protein. Proteins are similar to carbohydrates and lipids in that they are polymers (simple repeating units); however, proteins are much more structurally complex. In contrast to carbohydrates, which have identical repeating units, proteins are made up of amino acids that are different from one another. These amino acid combined in unique sequences to form specific proteins, each with its own physiological specificity. Proteins come in many different sizes. The hormone insulin, which regulates blood glucose, is composed of only 51 amino acids while collagen, a protein that acts like glue between cells, consists of more than 1,000 amino acids. Titin is the largest known protein. It accounts for the elasticity of muscles and consists of more than 25,000 amino acids!The huge diversity of proteins is also due to the unending number of amino acid sequences that can be formed. Amino acid, Amino acids are the fundamental building blocks of proteins and nitrogenous backbones for compounds such as neurotransmitters and hormones. Amino acids molecules that consist of a basic amino group ( ―NH2), an acidic carboxyl group (―COOH), and an organic R group (or side chain) that is unique to each amino acid. Each molecule contains a central carbon (C) atom, called the α-carbon, to which both an amino and a carboxyl group are attached. The remaining two bonds of the α-carbon atom are generally satisfied by a hydrogen (H) atom and the R group. Simply put in each amino acid, the elements are arranged into a specific conformation, consisting of a central carbon bound to the following four components: A hydrogen, A nitrogen-containing amino group, A carboxylic acid group (hence the name “amino acid”), A side chain. The first three of those components are the same for all amino acids. The side chain R—is what makes each amino acid unique. Amino acid side chains vary tremendously in their size and can be as simple as one hydrogen (as in glycine) or as complex as multiple carbon rings (as in tryptophan). They also differ in their chemical properties, thus impacting the way amino acids act in their environment and with other molecules. Because of their side chains, some amino acids are polar, making them hydrophilic and water-soluble, whereas others are nonpolar, making them hydrophobic or water-repelling. Some amino acids carry a negative charge and are acidic, while others carry a positive charge and are basic. Some carry no charge. Proteins are made up of hundreds or thousands of smaller units called amino acids, which are attached to one another in long chains. There are 20 types of amino acids. They combine to form protein. The sequence of amino acids determines each protein’s unique 3-dimensional structure and its specific function. CLASSIFICATION OF AMINO ACID 1)ESSENTIAL AMINO ACID The body cannot synthesis essential amino acid, so they must be obtained in the diet. Essential amino acids are 9: histidine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine, phenylalanine, threonine, tryptophan, and valine. They are therefore dietarily essential or indispensable nutrients. Histidine is an essential amino acid for infants, but was not demonstrated to be required by adults until recently. In premature infants or in people with liver damage, cystine and tyrosine, not normally essential, because of impaired conversion from their precursors. Arginine is synthesized by mammals but not in amounts sufficient to meet the needs of the young of most species ie normal growth. Although it is not believed to be required by the human infant for normal growth. When liver function is compromised, arginine synthesis may be insufficient for adequate function of the urea cycle NONESSENTIAL AMINO ACIDS Nonessential means that our bodies can produce the amino acid, even if we do not get it from the food we eat. Nonessential amino acids include: alanine, arginine, asparagine, aspartic acid, cysteine, glutamic acid, glutamine, glycine, proline, serine, and tyrosine. CONDITIONALLY ESSENTIAL AMINO ACIDS Conditionally essential amino acids are usually not essential, except in times of illness and stress. Conditionally essential amino acids include: arginine, cysteine, glutamine, tyrosine, glycine, proline, and serine. The body can synthesis the non-essential amino acids and they are 11 in number. Sometimes during infancy, growth, and in diseased states, the body cannot synthesize enough of some of the nonessential amino acids and more of them are required in the diet. These types of amino acids are called conditionally essential amino acids. The nutritional value of a protein is dependent on what amino acids it contains and in what quantities, food that contains all of the essential amino acids in adequate amounts is called a complete protein source, whereas one that does not is called an incomplete protein source. Classification of Proteins Classification based on composition (a) Simple proteins. On hydrolysis they yield only the amino acids and occasional small carbohydrate compounds. Examples are: albumins, globulins, glutelins, albuminoids, histones and protamines. (b) Conjugated proteins. These are simple proteins combined with some non- protein material in the body. Examples are: nucleoproteins, glycoproteins, phosphoproteins, haemoglobins and lecithoproteins. (c) Derived proteins. These are proteins derived from simple or conjugated proteins by physical or chemical means. Examples are: denatured proteins and peptides. Classification based on structural shape. Proteins may also be subdivided on the basis of their molecular shape or conformation. a) Fibrous proteins: They are long polymer chains , arranged parallel or nearly parallel to one another to give long fibers or sheets. This arrangement results in physically tough materials which do not dissolve in water. They are fundamental components of structural tissues such as tendons, bone, hair, horn, leather, claws, and feathers. b) Globular proteins: There polymer chain fold back on themselves to produce compact, nearly spherical shapes. Most globular proteins are water- soluble and hence are relatively mobile within a cell. Some examples are enzymes, antibodies, hormones, toxins, and substances such as hemoglobin whose function is to transport simple molecules or even electrons from one place to another. The enzyme trypsin, is a typical globular protein. FUNCTIONS OF PROTEIN 1. Growth and Maintenance: Protein is required for the growth and maintenance of tissues. Body’s protein needs are dependent upon ones health and activity level.Normally the body breaks down the same amount of protein that it uses to build and repair tissues. Other times, it breaks down more protein than it can create eg in illness, pregnancy and while breastfeeding. 2.Enzymatic activity : Enzymes are proteins and aid the thousands of biochemical reactions that take place within which catalyze reactions that are essential to for metabolism an. 3. Acts as a Messenger: Some proteins are hormones, which are chemical messengers that aid communication between cells, tissues and organs.They are secreted by endocrine tissues or glands and then transported by blood to target tissues or organs where they bind to protein receptors on the cell surface. Hormones can be grouped into three main categories Protein and peptides: from chains of amino acids. Steroids: from the fat cholesterol. Eg sex hormones, testosterone and estrogen. Amines: from the individual amino acids tryptophan or tyrosine, which help make hormones related to sleep and metabolism. 4. Provides Structure: Some proteins are fibrous and provide cells and tissues with stiffness and rigidity. Eg keratin, collagen and elastin, which help form the connective framework of certain structures in your body 5. Maintains Proper pH: Protein plays a vital role in regulating the concentrations of acids and bases in the blood and other bodily fluids. The balance between acids and bases is measured using the pH scale. It ranges from 0 to 14, with 0 being the most acidic, 7 neutral and 14 the most alkaline. 6. Bolsters Immune Health: Proteins help form immunoglobulins, or antibodies, to fight infection Antibodies are proteins in your blood that help protect your body from harmful invaders like bacteria and viruses. 7. Balances Fluids: Albumin and globulin are blood proteins that help maintain body’s fluid balance by attracting and retaining water thereby maintaining fluid balance 8. Transports and Stores Nutrients:.The substances transported by these proteins include nutrients like vitamins or minerals, blood sugar, cholesterol and oxygen.eg hemoglobin is a protein carries oxygen from lungs to body tissues. Glucose transporters (GLUT) move glucose to your cells, while lipoproteins transport cholesterol and other fats in your blood. 9. Provides Energy: Proteins can supply your body with energy. Protein contains four calories per gram, the same amount of energy that carbs provide. Fats supply the most energy, at nine calories per gram. 10. Muscle contraction: protein like actin and myosin are muscle fibers and enables muscle movement. Recommended Protein Intake The Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) of protein varies depending on a number of factors, including a person’s: age, sex activity levels, overall health, muscle mass, pregnancy or breastfeeding. Protein requirements by age: The National Academy of Medicine recommends that adults get about 0.8 grams of protein a day for every kilogram they weigh. That's about 7 grams for every 20 pounds. It suggests babies and children get a bit more, ranging from 1.2 grams per kilogram for infants to 0.85 grams per kilogram for teens. (To find your weight in kilograms, divide your weight in pounds by 2.2046. Then, multiply that number by 0.8 to figure out how many grams of protein you need as an adult.) Under the guidelines, a 150-pound adult would need about 54 grams of protein per day. The guidelines mean that, on average: Babies need about 10 grams a day, School-age kids need 19-34 grams a day, Teens male need up to 52 grams a day, Teens female need 46 grams a day, Adults male at need about 56 grams a day, Adults female need about 46 grams a day (71 grams if pregnant or breastfeeding). According to the academy, one should get at least 10% of your daily calories from protein, but not more than 35%, from protein, So if you eat 2,000 calories a day, 200 to 700 calories should come from protein. Aging and protein: As we age, getting enough protein becomes more important because muscle are lost naturally, starting in the 30s and speeding up each decade after that. This loss of muscle and strength is called sarcopeniais thus can increase risk of frailty, falls, and broken bones and make it harder for you to live on your own. Eating enough protein is one way to slow down muscle loss. It also can keep your bones stronger Many aging experts recommend that people over age 65 aim for the high end of recommended daily protein intake, up to 35% of daily calories from protein. Pregnancy, breastfeeding, and protein: During pregnancy, there's need for extra protein to support body changes and to help baby to grow. Protein is especially important after the first one-third of pregnancy, when the baby grows the most and the body does a lot of extra work. According to the American College of Sports Medicine, the American Dietetic Association, and Dieticians of Canada, people who run, swim, cycle, or do other endurance sports should aim for 1.2 to 1.4 grams of daily protein for every kilogram they weigh, In lift weights or other kinds of strength training, 1.2 to 1.7 grams of daily protein for every kilogram of weight Nitrogen Balance Nitrogen balance is the difference between nitrogen intake ( nitrogen ingested in the diet) and nitrogen excreted from the body and.The nitrogen balance is a simple index of whether physiological protein requirements are being met. Unlike most carbohydrate and lipid, protein contains nitrogen.Although the synthesis of proteins fixes nitrogen into those proteins, they are synthesized in direct response to specific needs. Excess nitrogen is excreted primarily as urea. Since nitrogen is essential but cannot be stored, the body attempts to maintain “nitrogen balance. Positive nitrogen balance occurs when nitrogen intake (from dietary protein) exceeds nitrogen loss. It indicates that the body is in a state of growth, repair, or recovery. This is more nitrogen is ingested than is eliminated. This occurs during growth, pregnancy, lactation, recovery from trauma, such as major surgery and athletes during muscle building, promoting protein synthesis and muscle growth.. If less nitrogen is ingested than is excreted, the body is in negative nitrogen balance.Negative Nitrogen Balance occurs when nitrogen loss exceeds intake, indicating that the body is breaking down more protein than it is synthesizing. This can happen during malnutrition, illness, or severe stress, leading to muscle wasting and decreased overall protein levels. In times when dietary nitrogen is not available, negative nitrogen balance occurs because some nitrogen is always excreted as urea and ammonia. Nitogen Equilibrium is a state where nitrogen intake equals loss. That is when the intake and output are approximately the same. The individual is said to be in nitrogen equilibrium. Measurement This is typical in healthy adults maintaining their weight and muscle mass.Measurement of nitrogen is the preferred analytical technique because nearly all dietary nitrogen comes from protein (a small but insignificant amount is provided by a few vitamins). Nitrogen values can be converted to grams of protein by multiplying be the factor 6. 25, most proteins contain about 16% nitrogen. The nitrogen content is determined chemically. -Thus the study of nitrogen balance is based on the principle that the amount of nitrogen consumed minus the amount excreted in this urine feces, and through the skin indicates the amount of protein needed by the body. An adult may be maintained in nitrogen and protein equilibrium or put into positive nitrogen balance by feeding him mixtures of pure essential amino acids. This fact is utilized medically in parental feeding with protein hydrolysate or amino acid mixtures in the patient cannot digest food. The following data from a nitrogen balance study of college women illustrate the use of the conversion factor. The intake of nitrogen was 6.99g, which is equivalent to 43.7g of protein (6.99 x 6.25); the total excretion urine and Feces) was 6.40g of nitrogen and the retention was 0.59g of nitrogen, which is equivalent to 3.69 of protein (0.59 x 6.25). All foods eaten by each person in the study was weighed and a daily - sample analyzed for nitrogen. Each person’s daily urinary & fecal excretions were separately collected and separately analyzed for nitrogen Losses of hair, and nails, insensible perspiration & sweating are usually not determined. From the results -of research studies, an FAO/WHO committee estimated - that - with a normal intake of protein, skin nitrogen loss in men is about 5mg nitrogen per kg of body weight and in women, 3.6mg nitrogen per kg of body weight. Illustrative nitrogen balance data are summarized thus: Nitrogen balance data (grams per day) Nitrogen Nitrogen excretion Nitrogen balance 8 8.85 - 0.85 8 6.35 +1.65b 8 8.00 0.00c Nitrogen Nitrogen excretion Nitrogen balance A Negative balance B Positive balance C Equilibrium Nutritional value of protein The nutritional value of a protein is measured by the quantity of essential amino acids it contains. Different foods contain different amounts of essential amino acids. Generally: Animal products (such as chicken, beef or fish and dairy products) have large amounts of all of the essential amino acids and are known as high-quality protein.Soy products, quinoa and the seed of a leafy green called amaranth also have large amounts of all of the essential amino acids. Plant proteins (beans, lentils, nuts and whole grains) contain all of the essential amino acids, but the amounts of one or two of these amino acids may be low. METHODS OF EVALUATING PROTEIN QUALITY Proteins differ, in their capacity to. support growth and maintain the nitrogen containing compounds of the body. The efficiency of a given protein to perform these functions depends upon the presence of relative amount of the essential amino acids in that protein. To appraise protein quality, its relative efficiency in satisfying amino acids requirements is measured. Methods of appraisal are important because of the shortage of good quality protein in the world and the effort to develop new protein sources (each of which must be evaluated). With each method, the nitrogen retained is measured either directly by balance studies or (in the case of experimental animals) by carcass analysis or indirectly by the growth of young animaIs. The following are the most common methods of appraisal 1) Protein Efficiency Ratio (P.E.R): The protein efficiency ratio (PER) is the body mass (g) gained by an animal from the intake of 1 g protein during a specified experimental period and is used to describe the nutritional value of protein. It is one of the method used to measure quality of protein food. Protein Efficiency Ratio (P.E.R.) measures the nutritive value of protein sources. The higher the P.E.R. value of a protein, the more beneficial it is to the animal. This is a measure of weight gain in young animals per gm of protein eaten. Laboratory rats are generally used, but children and other growing animals can as well be used. The intake of energy and other nutrients must be adequate; the intake of protein must be at least 10 percent of the diet; and the study must be carried out over a 4-week period. It is assumed that the weight gain will be proportional to the body protein. PER is the simplest method of determining quality because it requires no chemical calculations. PER = Weight gain (g) Protein intake (g) 2) Biological Value (BV): Biological value (BV) is a measure of the proportion of absorbed protein from a food which becomes incorporated into the proteins of the organism's body. it does not account for the protein of food that is not absorbed. It captures how readily the digested protein can be used in protein synthesis in the cells of the organism. In this context, however, the BV is a quantitative measure of protein quality. The BV of dietary protein is the fraction of absorbed nitrogen retained in the body. Thus, it measures the usefulness of the absorbed portion of dietary nitrogen. When no correction is made for the endogenous loss of nitrogen; the term “Apparent Biological Value” is used. The biological values are expressed on a percentage scale Theoretical BV varies from zero to 100%. It is 100% when no nitrogen is excreted and zero when none of the protein is utilized. However in practice it's between 50- 100%. Eg Animal protein like meat, fish, egg have high biological values close to 100% while plants have lower BV. 3) Net Protein Utilization (NPU): NPU is the proportion of food nitrogen (N) that is retained in the body under specified conditions.Net Protein Utilization' refers to the assessment of protein quality in humans based on nitrogen balance studies, measuring fecal and urinary nitrogen losses to determine the utilization of a protein in the body. This is the most common procedure for determining protein quality. The BV & NPU of dietary protein are affected by the energy value of the diet. An inadequate, energy intake lowers the retention of nitrogen and consequently the BV and NPU. Summarily, NPU = Food N - Total urinary N - Urinary N when N free diet is fed Total fecal N -fecal N when N - free diet is fed NPU can be calculated as NPU = Ni- NE% Ni Where Ni - Nitrogen intake, NE - Nitrogen excreted Meaning Nitrogen retained × 100 Nitrogen intake 1 4) Net Dietary Protein Calories (NDpCal): It is protein energy multiplied by net protein utilization divided by total energy. If energy is expressed in kcal and the result expressed as a percentage, this is net dietary protein calories per cent, NDpCal%. NDpCaI Percent = Food Protein Kilocal x NPU x 100 ---------------------------------------------------------- Total Food kilocal Is a method for evaluating dietary protein which takes into account the energy value of the diets. Net dietary protein calories (NdpCal). Using this method of estimating protein quality, the product of the portion of totalfood kilocalories that is protein and the portion of the total food NPU is expressed in percent: VITAMINS Vitamins are organic nutrients that are essential, in small quantities, for the proper functioning of the body's metabolisms.These are organic compounds that are required for growth and maintenance of life. They are regulatory substances (and sometimes structural) each performing a specific function(s).’ In general, the body cannot synthesize them, at least in large enough amounts to meet its needs. However, an exception is vitamin D: When an individual is exposed to ultraviolet rays, this is found in the skin. They are needed only in minute quantities, but essential for the normal metabolism of nutrients. Many act as catalysts or help f in catalysts Iii the body. They are a part of the enzyme system and assist in essential metabolic reactions, CLASSIFICATION OF VITAMINS It is convenient to divide the vitamins into two groups on the basis of solubility. (1) Fat soluble vitamins (2) Water soluble vitamins The Fat soluble Vitamins: These are vitamin that can dissolve in fats and oils. Fat-soluble vitamins are absorbed along with fats in the diet and are stored in the body’s fatty tissue and in the liver. They are found in many plant and animal foods and in dietary supplements. They are Vitamins A, D, E, and K., because they are absorbed along with dietary fats, conditions not favorable to normal fat uptake will also interfere with their absorption. They are not normally excreted in the urine thus there is a higher risk of problems from the overconsumption of these vitamins. Mineral oil interferes with it's absorption and if on use, should be taken on rising or long enough after a meal to prevent interference with the utilization of the fat soluble vitamins. Vitamin A (Retinol) Vitamin A, an organic compound found only in the animal kingdom, is a very pale yellow (almost, colorless) substance composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Vitamin A is believed to be present in all species of fish, birds and mammals. Approximately 10 carotenes (the yellow plant pigment provitamin A) have been identified in nature. The body converts those carotenes into vitamin A in the intestinal mucosa during absorption.Vitamin A describes a group of compounds that include retinol, retinoic acid, retinal, and a number of provitamin A carotenoids such as beta-carotene. Types of vitamin A Vitamin A can be categorized into two main types: 1. Preformed Vitamin A (Retinol): Found in animal products such as liver, fish, dairy, and eggs. It is readily usable by the body. 2. Provitamin A Carotenoids: Found in plant-based foods like fruits and vegetables. The most well-known carotenoid is beta-carotene, which the body can convert into retinol. Beta-carotene is an antioxidant. Antioxidants protect cells from damage caused by substances called free radicals.Free radicals are believed to contribute to certain long-term diseases and play a role in aging. Other carotenoids include alpha-carotene and beta- cryptoxanthin. Both types contribute to essential functions like vision, immune function, and skin health. Functions 1. Vision : Vitamin A is a key component of rhodopsin, a pigment in the retina that allows the eyes to see in low light. It plays a role in the visual cycle, by converting light into electrical signals that the brain interprets as images. It helps maintain the health of the cornea and other eye tissues, supporting overall eye function. Sufficient levels of vitamin A are essential to prevent night blindness and other visual impairments. Vitamin A may help guard against age-related macular degeneration (AMD) and cataracts by reducing oxidative stress in the eyes. Research indicates that higher blood levels of beta-carotene, alpha-carotene, and beta-cryptoxanthin may lower the risk of AMD by up to 25%. This protective effect is attributed to carotenoids' ability to shield macular tissue from damage. 2.Fertility and fetal development: Vitamin A is crucial for reproduction in both men and women, it contributes to the development of sperm and eggs. It also plays an important role in placental health, fetal tissue development, and overall fetal growth. As a result, vitamin A is essential for the well- being of pregnant individuals and their developing babies, as well as for those trying to conceive. 3. Growth: Vitamin A is essential for growth and development as it supports cell growth and differentiation. It also plays a critical role in the formation and maintenance of vital organs such as the heart, lungs, and eyes. 4.Protect against certain cancers: Carotenoid-rich fruits and vegetables may offer protection against certain cancers due to their antioxidant properties. A study of over 10,000 adults revealed that smokers with the highest blood levels of alpha-carotene and beta-cryptoxanthin had a 46% and 61% lower risk of dying from lung cancer, respectively, compared to nonsmokers with the lowest intake of these nutrients. Furthermore, test-tube studies indicate that retinoids might inhibit the growth of specific cancer cells, including those associated with bladder, breast, and ovarian cancers. 5. Boosts immune system: Vitamin A plays a critical role in immune health by stimulating responses that help protect the body from illnesses and infections. It is essential for the production B cells and T cells, which are key to immune responses against disease. A deficiency in vitamin A can lead to higher levels of pro-inflammatory m. Skin health: Retinoic acid is essential for maintaining skin health by activating genes that promote the maturation of immature skin cells into mature epidermal cells. Research is ongoing to better understand this mechanism and develop treatments for dermatological diseases. Currently, isotretinoin, a retinoid, is the most commonly prescribed medication for acne. It works by decreasing the size of sebaceous glands and reducing their oil production. Additionally, isotretinoin lowers the number of bacteria on the skin's surface and in the ducts, as the reduced sebum limits the nutrients available to these bacteria. 7. Health of epithelial tissues: The epithelial tissues cover the outer surface of the body and the major cavities within the body and line all of the tubular systems. Insufficient vitamin A causes a suppression of the tissues’ specialized functions and produces a keratinized (dry, horny) type of epitheliurn. The skin may become excessively dry and the mucous membranes may fail to secret normally and thus becoming more prone to bacterial invasion. The exact role vitamin A plays in maintaining the health of the epithelial tissues is not known, but it is believed that the vitamin may be necessary to the mucus-secreting cells of all which are needed to maintain normal tissue. 8. Cell growth: Retinoic acid, a form of vitamin A, serves as an essential hormone-like growth factor for epithelial cells and other types of cells in the body.olecules, weakening the immune system's response and function.. Vitamin A deficiency This deficiency may be due to a dietary lack of vitamin A, provitamin or to poor absorption. Among the various clinical manifestations, those of the eye and the skin are most prominent. The eye: the earliest symptom here is night blindness; inability to see normally in dim light. Night driving becomes difficult because of facing the bright lights of oncoming vehicles as the eyes are slow to adjust. Another is Xerophthalmia. It is a disease that causes dry eyes due to vitamin A deficiency. If it goes untreated, it can progress into night blindness or spots on your eyes. It can even damage the cornea and cause blindness.Xerophthalmia characterized by dry eyes and other ocular symptoms. It can lead to severe dryness of the conjunctiva and cornea, causing discomfort, inflammation, and, in advanced cases, scarring and vision loss. The skin: those with a prolonged and severed vitamin A deficiency may also experience changes in the skin, including dryness; wrinkling, slale-grray discoloration and hyperkeratosis (thicken of the outer layer). The hair may lose its luster and the nails maybe affected. Delayed Growth and development : A deficiency in vitamin A can lead to delayed growth and development in children. Impaired immune function: A deficiency in vitamin A can weaken immune system, increases the likelihood of infections in the chest and throat. Hypervitaminosis A This Is a condition that occurs when a person has excess vitamin A in their body. An excessive intake of vitamin A produces toxic symptoms in both men and animals. Symptoms include fatigue, severe pain in the knees, hips and shoulders, dryness of scalp and body, hair, hemorrhages. The incidence of hypervitaminosis A appears to be increasing. The toxic dose varies considerably from one person to the next. The council of food and nutrition of the American medical association states that there is definite possibility of harm from the prolonged ingestion of vitamin A in excess of 50,000 USP units daily. Massive doses of carotene on the other hand are not harmful because it is not converted to vitamin A sufficiently and, rapidly to cause toxicity. The accumulation of excess carotene in the body produces a slightly yellow skin coIor which disappears when the intake is reduced Recommended daily allowance for Vitamin A The Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) for men and women is 900 and 700 μg / mcg (microgram) RAE (retinol activity equivalents) respectively. That is for men it's equivalent to 3,000 IU) and for women is equivalent to 2,333 IU. Food sources of Vitamin A Preformed Vitamin A is found only in food of animal origin, while carotene is found in both plant, and animal products. Good food sources of Vitamin A are whole milk, butter egg yolk liver and kidney: The most important sources of carotene are generally the yellow, yellowish- red, and green fruits and vegetables. Large amounts of carotene are provided by carrots, sweet potatoes, spinach, tomatoes etc. There is little vitamin A in nuts grain, vegetable oils, muscle meats, light colored fruits and vegetables. Vitamin D ( Calciferol) Vitamin D also referred to as calciferol is a fat-soluble vitamin in a family of compounds that includes vitamins D2, and D3. The body produces vitamin D naturally when directly exposed to sunlight. vitamin D can also be gotten from certain foods and supplements. Vitamin D2 is also known as ergocalciferol while vitamin D3 is known as cholecalciferol.Vitamin D, itself, in its pure state, is typically colorless. The color can vary slightly depending on the source and the form of vitamin D. For example Vitamin D2 (ergocalciferol) usually appears as a colorless or pale yellow liquid while Vitamin D3 (cholecalciferol) appears as a colorless to light yellow liquid or oil. Functions of Vitamin D 1) Calcium absorption: Vitamin D aids in the absorption of calcium in the gut and helps maintain proper levels of calcium and phosphate in the blood, which are essential for normal bone mineralization and the prevention of hypocalcemic tetany (involuntary muscle contractions, causing cramps and spasms). 2) Healthy bones:Vitamin D deficiency in children can result in rickets, causing bowlegs due to weakened bones, as well as dental issues, such as improper tooth development. In adults, a lack of vitamin D can lead to osteomalacia, or softening of the bones. Chronic vitamin D deficiency can also lead to osteoporosis, a condition characterized by low bone density, which increases the risk of fractures. 3)Immune function:Adequate vitamin D intake may help support healthy immune function and lower the risk of autoimmune diseases Vitamin D deficiency Although the body can produce vitamin D through sunlight exposure, some individuals may still develop deficiencies. Factors that can contribute to this include: Lack of sun exposure: People who do not go outside can also develop a deficiency. Skin color: Skin pigmentation reduces the body's ability to absorb ultraviolet B (UVB) rays. People with darker skin produce less vitamin D from sunlight compared to those with lighter skin. Age: As people age, the skin's ability to produce vitamin D diminishes. Additionally, older adults may spend more time indoors, further limiting their vitamin D synthesis. Air pollution: This can reduce the amount of ultraviolet B (UVB) rays that reach the skin, which is necessary for the body to produce vitamin D. Pollutants such as smog, particulate matter, and other airborne particles can block or absorb UVB radiation, leading to lower levels of vitamin D synthesis, especially in urban areas with high pollution. This can increase the risk of vitamin D deficiency, particularly in individuals who already have limited sun exposure. Body weight: Higher levels of body fat can reduce the skin's ability to absorb vitamin D. Symptoms of vitamin D deficiency Most people with a vitamin D deficiency do not experience symptoms. However, a long-term deficiency can result in osteomalacia, which may lead to: bone pain, joint pain, muscle weakness or spasms, problems with bone development or the teeth. Weakened bones can lead to osteoporosis over time, raising the risk of falls and fractures, especially in older adults. Vitamin D in infants and children Infancy and childhood are periods of rapid bone growth, making it crucial for infants to receive sufficient vitamin D. Chronic vitamin D deficiency can lead to rickets, a condition where bone tissue softens, potentially causing malformation of bones and joints. Hypervitaminosis D This is a condition that occurs after taking very high doses or excess intake of vitamin D. For most individuals, vitamin D toxicity typically occurs only when daily doses exceed 10,000 IU.Excess vitamin D can lead to abnormal high levels of calcium in the blood (hypercalcemia), which can cause severe damage to the kidneys, soft tissues, and bones over time. The symptoms include: Constipation, Decreased appetite (anorexia),Dehydration, Fatigue and confusion, Frequent urination (pollakiuria), Irritability, Muscle weakness, Vomiting, Excessive thirst (polydipsia), High blood pressure, Passing large amounts of urine (polyuria). Recommended daily allowance for vitamin D Vitamin D recommended intake is 400–800 IU/day or 10–20 micrograms, depending on age. The RDA for vitamin D are as follows: Infants 0-12 months 400 IU (10 mcg), Children 1-18 years 600 IU (15 mcg), Adults up to 70 years 600 IU (15 mcg), Adults over 71 years and above 800 IU (20 mcg), Pregnant or lactating women 600 IU (15 mcg) Adults who work at night and those whose clothing or constumes shield them from sunlight need some more vitamin D in their diet. Sources of vitamin D People typically obtain vitamin D through sunlight exposure. However, many individuals cannot rely solely on sunlight for adequate vitamin D production, especially during certain times of the year or in regions with limited sunlight. Other sources include: foods like fatty fish, such as salmon, mackerel, and tuna.Egg yolks, cheese, liver, mushrooms, fortified milk, fortified cereals and juices. vitamin D supplements. Vitamin E (tocopherol.) Vitamin E is also known as tocopherol. It is a yellow viscous oil.Vitamin E is relatively stable, but its stability can be affected by heat, light, oxygen, and the presence of other substances, so it is important to store it in cool, dark, and air-tight conditions to preserve its effectiveness. Forms of Vitamin E Vitamin E occurs in eight different chemical forms in nature: Alpha-, beta-, gamma-, and delta-tocopherol, Alpha-, beta-, gamma-, and delta-tocotrienol. These forms of vitamin E vary in biological activity, but only alpha-tocopherol has been extensively studied and recognized as crucial for human health. Function of Vitamin E Vitamin E serves several important functions in the body: Antioxidant: It protects tissues from damage caused by free radicals, which can harm cells, tissues, and organs and are thought to contribute to aging-related conditions. Immune Support: It helps maintain a strong immune system, defending against viruses and bacteria. Blood Health: Vitamin E aids in the formation of red blood cells and helps widen blood vessels to prevent clotting. Vitamin K Utilization: It supports the body’s use of vitamin K. Cell Communication: Vitamin E plays a role in how cells interact, enabling them to perform various vital functions. Vitamin E deficiency Vitamin E is found naturally in a variety of foods and is often added to certain products. As a result, vitamin E deficiency is rare, unless there is an underlying health condition. Newborns have limited vitamin E reserves because only small amounts pass through the placenta. As a result, they, especially preterm infants, are at higher risk of vitamin E deficiency. However, this risk decreases with age as infants typically receive sufficient vitamin E from breast milk or formula. In adults, vitamin E is stored in fat tissue, reducing the likelihood of deficiency. The diagnosis vitamin E deficiency is based on symptoms and results of a physical examination.Blood tests to measure the level of vitamin E may be done to confirm the diagnosis. Vitamin E deficiency may cause impaired reflexes and coordination, difficulty walking, and weak muscles. Preterm infants with the deficiency may develop a serious form of anemia. Taking vitamin E supplements corrects the deficiency. Vitamin E Excess (Vitamin E Toxicity) Vitamin E toxicity is rare, but occasionally high doses of vitamin E cause or increase a risk of bleeding, as well as muscle weakness, fatigue, nausea, and diarrhea Recommended daily allowance for vitamin E 1- 3 years 6 mg/day, 4-8 years 7 mg/day, 9-13 years 11 mg/day Teens 14 years and up 15 mg/day, Pregnant 15 mg/day, Breastfeeding 19mg/day. Food sources of vitamin E Vitamin E is found in plant-based oils, nuts, seeds, fruits, and vegetables, especially in cold cold compressed oil as Wheat germ oil, Sunflower, safflower, and soybean oil. Sunflower seeds, Almonds, Peanuts, peanut butter, Beet greens, collard greens, spinach, Pumpkin, Red bell pepper. However animal products contain little vitamin E, the best sources are liver, heart, kidney and eggs. Vitamin K Vitamin K is stored in the liver and other tissues, including the brain, heart, pancreas, and bones.Vitamin K occurs in two bioactive forms, vitamin K1, ( phylloquinone) and Vitamin K2 ( menaquinone). Vitamin K1, is a product of plant synthesis. It is most prevalent in green leafy vegetables because it is directly involved in photosynthesis. Vitamin K1 is active in animals and is responsible for the production of coagulation factors and can be converted into vitamin K2 in animals. Vitamin K2 is created in the gut by bacteria. Gut flora converts vitamin K1 into vitamin K2 (menaquinone). A range of vitamin K2 forms can be created.. Bacteria are the primary producers of menaquinones, which they use during anaerobic respiration. menaquinones, are found in some animal foods and fermented foods. Recommended daily allowance Although vitamin K is recognized as a dietary essential, allowances have not been established; apparently the amount needed by the body is quite small. Since this vitamin appears in a wide variety of commonly eaten plant foods, is synthesized by bacteria in the intestinal tract, the normal person is not likely to develop a deficiency. An “adequate intake” (AI) is used when there is not enough evidence to establish a Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA). The AI amount is estimated to ensure nutritional adequacy. For adults 19 years and older, the AI for vitamin K is 120 micrograms (mcg) daily for men and 90 mcg for women and for those who are pregnant or lactating. Functions of vitamin K The body requires both types of vitamin K to produce prothrombin, a protein essential for blood clotting, bone health, and cardiovascular function. Vitamin K also supports energy production in the mitochondria of cells. Vitamin K-1 plays a key role in blood coagulation. Sources of vitamin K Vitamin K is found in vegetable; good sources are spinach, cabbage, pumpkin, cauliflower. Animal products and cereals contain little vitamin K. Vitamin K Deficiency Vitamin K deficiency is relatively rare in healthy individuals, as the body usually receives enough through diet and intestinal bacteria. However, certain populations are more at risk, : 1. Newborns: Infants, especially those born prematurely, are at higher risk and often receive a vitamin K injection at birth to prevent bleeding disorders. 2. Individuals with Malabsorption Disorders: Conditions such as celiac disease, cystic fibrosis, or Crohn’s disease can impair the absorption of vitamin K. 3. People on Long-Term Antibiotics: Extended antibiotic use can disrupt the gut bacteria that produce vitamin K, potentially leading to deficiency. 4. Those with Liver Disease: As the liver plays a key role in vitamin K metabolism, liver disease can increase the risk of deficiency. 5. Individuals on Certain Medications: Long-term use of medications like blood thinners (e.g., warfarin) can interfere with vitamin K activity, raising the risk of deficiency. Water soluble vitamins Water-soluble vitamins dissolve in water and are easily absorbed by the body's tissues for immediate use. Any excess amounts are quickly eliminated through urine. Since these vitamins are not stored in the body, it's important to replenish them regularly through your diet. All B vitamins are water-soluble and assist in converting carbohydrates, fats, and proteins into energy, or glucose and are essential for maintaining the health of the liver, skin, hair, and eyes. There are nine water-soluble vitamins: eight B vitamins, and vitamin c. The B vitamins -- Vitamin B1 (thiamine), Vitamin B2 (riboflavin), Vitamin B3 (niacin), Vitamin B5 (pantothenic acid), Vitamin B6 (pyridoxine), Vitamin B7 (biotin), Vitamin B9 (folate or folic acid), Vitamin B12 (cobalamin) and Vitamin C (ascorbic acid). The deficiency of any of these water-soluble vitamins results in a clinical syndrome that may result in severe morbidity and mortality. Vitamin B1 Thiamine Vitamin B1 can appear as a colorless compound, or as white to off-white crystals or powder. Vitamin B1 tablets can be white. For example, a 100 mg thiamine tablet is white and round. Thiamine hydrochloride, a form of vitamin B1, is white to off-white in color and can appear as crystals or crystalline powder. Vitamin B1, or thiamine, is crucial for glucose metabolism and the proper functioning of the nerves, muscles, and heart. Thiamin is known as the antineuritic vitamin because it is needed for normal functioning of the nervous system. It also enables the body to use carbohydrates as energy. Heating, cooking, and processing foods, as well as boilingr, can destroy thiamine. Since vitamin B1 is water-soluble, it dissolves into the cooking water. Because the body does not store vitamin B1, a continuous supply is necessary, making it an essential part of a person's daily diet. Thiamine deficiency A deficiency in vitamin B1 often leads to beriberi, a condition characterized by nerve damage and muscle wasting. Other symptoms of beriberi include: cardiovascular symptoms, including an enlarged heart or tachycardia, difficulty breathing, muscle weakness, seizures, vomiting, anorexia, swelling, problems with coordination, or loss of muscle, peripheral neuropathy, peripheral edema, pins and needles. One of the earliest symptoms of thiamin deficiency is the loss of appetite or anorexia. Untreated thiamine deficiency over an extended period can lead to Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome, a brain disorder caused by low levels of thiamine. This disorder commonly affect individuals with chronic alcoholism, gastrointestinal issues, or AIDS. Thiamine injections are often administered to those with Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome to aid in their recovery. Older adults and people with diabetes may also be at an increased risk of developing a vitamin B1 deficiency. Functions of thiamine Thiamin also plays a role in muscle contraction and conduction of nerve signals. They also support the nervous system and are crucial for optimal brain function. It helps in cell function, growth, and development. Thiamin is essential for the metabolism of pyruvate, which is an important molecule in several chemical reactions in the Sources of Thiamin Food sources for thiamin include: Beef steak and pork, fish, including trout, tuna, and mussels, black beans, whole grains, Egg, Wheat germ, Legumes and peas,Nuts and seeds, cereals fortified with vitamin B1. NB: Dairy products, fruits, and vegetables contain small amounts of thiamine, but when consumed in large quantities, they can become a significant source of this vitamin. Recommended daily allowance RDA for Men 19–30 years 1.2 mg/day of thiamine, 31–50 years 1.2 mg/day of thiamin. RDA for Women 19–30 years 1.1 mg/day of thiamine, 31– 50 years 1.1 mg/day of thiamine Vitamin B2 Riboflavin Vitamin B2, also known as riboflavin, is yellow to yellow-orange in color: Riboflavin is a water-soluble B vitamin that naturally fluoresces under ultraviolet light. It is also light-sensitive, that is riboflavin is destroyed by light, so foods containing riboflavin should be stored in protective containers or dark place to protect their riboflavin content or preserve their potency. It can leach into water when foods are boiled or soaked. Roasting and steaming foods help preserve more riboflavin compared to frying or scalding. Riboflavin is used as a food coloring additive and to enrich various products, including: Baby foods, Breakfast cereals, Energy and fruit drinks, Dairy products, Pasta, Processed cheese. Riboflavin deficiency Riboflavin deficiency is also known as ariboflavinosis. There are two types of riboflavin deficiency: Primary riboflavin deficiency occurs when a person's diet lacks sufficient vitamin B2 while secondary riboflavin deficiency occurs due to other factors such as poor intestinal absorption, inability of the body to utilize the vitamin, or excessive excretion of riboflavin. Signs and symptoms of riboflavin deficiency Angular cheilitis, or cracks at the corners of the mouth, Cracked lips, Dry skin, Inflammation of the lining of the mouth, Inflammation of the tongue, Mouth ulcers, Red lips, Sore throat, Scrotal dermatitis, Fluid in mucous membranes, Iron-deficiency anemia, Eyes may be sensitive to bright light, and they may be itchy, watery, or bloodshot. Drugs that may interfere with riboflavin levels in the body include:Tricyclic antidepressants, such as imipramine, or Tofranil, Some antipsychotic drugs, such as chlorpromazine, or Thorazine, Methotrexate, used for cancer and autoimmune diseases, such as rheumatoid arthritis, Phenytoin, or Dilantin, used to control seizures, Probenecid, for gout, Thiazide diuretics, or water pills. Recommended daily allowance Infants, birth to 6 months: 0.3 mg (adequate intake), Infants, 7 to 12 months: 0.4 mg (adequate intake), Children, 1 to 3 years: 0.5 mg (RDA), Children, 4 to 8 years: 0.6 mg (RDA), Children, 9 to 13 years: 0.9 mg (RDA), Boys, 14 to 18 years: 1.3 mg (RDA), Girls, 14 to 18 years: 1 mg (RDA) Adult, Men, 19 years and older: 1.3 mg (RDA), Women, 19 years and older: 1.1 mg (RDA), Pregnant women: 1.4 mg (RDA), Breastfeeding women: 1.6 mg (RDA). Riboflavin is best absorbed when taken between meals. Functions of riboflavin Riboflavin acts as an antioxidant, combating harmful molecules called free radicals in the body. Free radicals can damage cells and DNA, potentially accelerating the aging process and contributing to the development of various health conditions, including heart disease and cancer. Antioxidants like riboflavin help neutralize free radicals, potentially reducing or preventing some of the damage they cause. Riboflavin is also essential for converting vitamin B6 and folate into their active forms. it plays a key role in growth and red blood cell production. Dietary Sources of riboflavin The best sources of riboflavin include: Brewer's yeast, Almonds, Organ meats, Whole grains, Wheat germ, Wild rice, Mushrooms, Soybeans, Milk, Yogurt, Eggs, Broccoli, Brussels sprouts, Spinach, Flours and cereals are often fortified with riboflavin.  Vitamin B3 (niacinamide or nicotinic acid ) Niacin exists in two primary chemical forms: nicotinic acid and niacinamide (also known as nicotinamide). Both forms are present in foods and supplements. Vitamin B3, also known as niacinamide or nicotinic acid, is white in color. Niacinamide is a white powder that is slightly viscous and water soluble. It is odorless and has a pH range of 6–7.5 while Niacin is a white, translucent crystals. It is much more stable than thiamin and riboflavin and is remarkably resistant to heat, air, acids and alkalis, although small amts may be lost in discarded cooking water. It is frequently administered in amide form, nicotinamide. NB: Niacinamide (nicotinamide) is the amide form of niacin (nicotinic acid). It is created when the carboxyl group (–COOH) in niacin is replaced by an amide group (–CONH₂), which makes it more stable and easier for the body to use. This form of vitamin B3 is especially effective for skin care and metabolic processes. In short, niacinamide is just the amide version of niacin, and both are forms of vitamin B3. Functions of niacin The key role naicin in the body is to synthesise the coenzymes nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) and nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADP). These coenzymes are involved in many biochemical reactions/cellular metabolism., primarily focused on converting the food you eat into energy. Niacinamide can help improve the skin's protective barrier and brighten skin tone. I Deficiency of niacin Severe deficiency of Niacin (vitamin B3) results in a condition known as pellagra. Pellagra is characterized by the triad or “3D’s of pellagra: dermatitis, dementia, and diarrhea and can result in death. In addition, niacin deficiency can occur through genetic disorders, malabsorptive conditions, Anorexia and interaction with certain medications.such as isoniazid, 5-fluorouracil, 6-mercaptopurine, pyrazinamide, hydantoin, ethionamide, phenobarbital, azathioprine, and chloramphenicol Symptoms of pellagra Delusions or mental confusion, Diarrhea, Weakness, Loss of appetite, Pain in abdomen, Inflamed mucous membrane, Scaly skin sores, especially in sun-exposed areas. The recommended daily allowance (RDA) The RDA of niacin (vitamin B3), depends on age and life stage: Infants: 2–6 mg, Children: 6–13 mg, Adults: 14 mg for women and 16 mg for men, Pregnant teens and women: 18 mg, Breastfeeding teens and women 17 mg. The tolerable upper intake level (UL) for niacin for adults is 35 mg per day. Niacin is safe to consume in the amounts found in food, but supplemental doses can have side effects. Sources of niacin Animal foods eg Beef, pork, poultry, fish, eggs, and dairy products. Legumes, nuts, and seeds eg Peanuts, walnuts, pumpkin seeds, sunflower seeds, squash seeds, flaxseeds, and almonds excellent source. Grains eg Brown rice and cereals, Fruits eg Bananas, guavas, nectarines, and melons. Vegetables eg Carrots, spinach, kale, broccoli, asparagus, celery, mushrooms, and avocados. Niacin is also added to some foods, such as energy drinks. The Tryptophan- Niacin relationship: It has been demonstrated that’ one of the essential amino acids, tryptophan, can be converted into ‘niacin in the bodies of both animals and humans. The conversion ratio was found to be about 60 to 1, i.e..60mg of dietary tryptophan is equivalent to I mg of niacin. Vitamin B5 (Pantothenic acid) vitamin B5 is known as Pantothenic acid.necessary for various metabolic functions within the body. Vitamin B5 is available in the forms of D- pantothenic acid, dexpanthenol, and calcium pantothenate, all of which are synthetic compounds derived from D-pantothenic acid. Functions of Pantothenic acid It helps in synthesizing hormones, and maintaining optimal conditions for skin, hair, and nails.vitamin B5 is critical to the manufacture of red blood cells, as well as sex and stress-related hormones produced in the adrenal glands, (small glands that sit atop the kidneys). Vitamin B5 is also important in maintaining a healthy digestive tract, and it helps the body use other vitamins, particularly B2 ( riboflavin). It is sometimes called the "anti-stress" vitamin, but there is no concrete evidence whether it helps the body withstand stress. The body needs pantothenic acid to synthesize cholesterol. Pantothenic acid, in the form of coenzyme A (CoA), plays an essential role in the synthesis of cholesterol. :After pantothenic acid is absorbed, it is converted into its active form, coenzyme A, within the body. CoA is crucial for several metabolic processes, including the synthesis of fatty acids and cholesterol. Coenzyme A combines with an acetyl group to form acetyl-CoA, a key molecule in metabolism. Acetyl-CoA is the building block for both fatty acid and cholesterol synthesis Thus, pantothenic acid, by being converted into coenzyme A, indirectly supports the formation of acetyl-CoA, which is crucial for the biosynthesis of cholesterol. This process is vital for producing cholesterol, which is necessary for creating cell membranes, hormones (such as cortisol and sex hormones), and bile acids. Vitamin B5, typically appears as a white, odorless powder in its pure form. It is stable in both dry and acidic conditions, but can degrade in alkaline environments or when exposed to heat for prolonged periods. Deficiency of vitamin B5 (Pantothenic) Vitamin B5 deficiency is rare, but may include symptoms such as fatigue, insomnia, depression, irritability, vomiting, stomach pains, burning feet, and upper Recommended daily allowance Pediatric: Infants birth - 6 months: 1.7 mg, Infants 7 months - 1 year: 1.8 mg, Children 1 - 3 years: 2 mg, Children 4 - 8 years: 3 mg, Children 9 - 13 years: 4 mg, Teens 14 - 18 years 5 mg. Adult:19 years and older 5 mg, Pregnant women 6 mg, Breastfeeding women 7 mg. Sources of vitamin B5 Foods high in vitamin B5 include mushrooms, fish, avocados, eggs, lean chicken, beef, pork, sunflower seeds, milk, sweet potatoes, and lentils. The current daily value (DV) for Pantothenic Acid (vitamin B5) is 5mg. VITAMIN B6 (PYRIDOXINE) Pyridoxine, pyridoxal, and pyridoxamine are all forms of vitamin B6. It's found in certain foods and also made in a lab.The pyridoxal & pyridoxamine forms occur mainly in animal products, whereas pyridoxine is found largely in vegetable products.Vitamin B6, in its pure form as pyridoxine, is a white, crystalline powder. It may also appear as a yellowish color when in the form of its other active metabolites (like pyridoxal phosphate) or in certain supplements or food sources.lt is sensitive to heat, gentle cooking method like steaming and microwaving help minimise nutrient loss. Sources of vitamin B6 Food sources of vitamin B6 include poultry, fish, potatoes, chickpeas, bananas and fortified cereals. Vitamin B6 can also be taken as a supplement, typically as an oral capsule, tablet or liquid. Functions of Vitamin B6 (pyridoxine) It is important for normal brain development and It keeps the nervous system and immune system healthy. Deficiency of itamin B6 (pyridoxine) Because vitamin B6 is present in most foods, dietary deficiency is rare. Secondary deficiency may result from various conditions. Symptoms can include peripheral neuropathy, a pellagra-like syndrome, anemia, and Vitamin B6 deficiency, also known as pyridoxine deficiency,Vitamin B6 deficiency is more common in people with liver, kidney, digestive or autoimmune diseases, as well as smokers, obese people, alcoholics and pregnant women. can cause a range of symptoms. In adults, it can cause inflammation of the skin (dermatitis) and a red, greasy, scaly rash, numbness of hands and feetl and prickling—like pins and needles. soreness and reddnee of tongue, cracks in the corners of the mouth, anemia, confusion, depression and a weakened immune system. A vitamin B-6 deficiency is usually coupled with deficiency in other B vitamins, such as folic acid (vitamin B-9) and vitamin B-12. Recommended daily allowance 19–50 years: 1.3 mg for both men and women, 51+ years: 1.7 mg for men and 1.5 mg for women. Pregnant women: 1.9 mg, Breastfeeding women: 2.0 mg. Food Sources The best sources of vitamin B6 are yeast, wheat, pork, glandular meats especially liver, lean /muscle meat, whole grain cereals, milk, legumes, potatoes, bananas and oat meal. It is inmost common food stuffs. Vitamin B7 (Biotin) Vitamin B7 is also known as Biotin or vitamin H. Vitamin H is an older term for biotin.The human cells cannot synthesize vitamin B7. However, bacteria in the body can produce biotin, and the vitamin is present in numerous foods. Is typically a white, crystalline powder in its pure form and odorless. Relatively stable under heat. Functions of vitamin B7 It also helps maintain a healthy nervous system, nails, hair and skin, among other functions. It helps to regulate blood sugar levels Deficiency of Vitamin B7 Biotin Biotin deficiency is rare because most people consume enough biotin through a balanced diet. However, alcoholism can increase the risk of biotin deficiency and other nutrient deficiencies, as alcohol interferes with nutrient absorption and is often linked to poor dietary habits. Symptoms appearing with a biotin deficiency: hair loss (alopecia) /Thinning hair,scaly, red rash around the orifices, ie, eyes, nose, and mouth (also called “biotin- deficient face”). The rash is similar to that of zinc deficiency. Conjunctivitis and skin infections, depression, lethargy, hallucinations, numbness and tingling in the hands and feet, a loss of control of bodily movements ( ataxia), seizures, weakened immune function. increased risk of bacterial and fungal infections. Some pregnant women have a mild biotin deficiency (causes unknown). This can lead to atypical development in the fetus. Note: A protein in raw eggs, called avidin, can bind to biotin and hinder its absorption. However, cooked eggs do not pose this problem, as heat breaks down avidin. Recommended daily allowance There is no Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) for biotin due to insufficient evidence regarding the specific daily amount required by most healthy individuals. Instead, an Adequate Intake (AI) level is established, which is considered sufficient to ensure nutritional adequacy. The AI levels for biotin are: birth to 6 months 5 mcg, infants 7–12 months 6 mcg, children 1–3 years 8 mcg, children 4–8 years 12 mcg, children 9–13 years 20 mcg, teens 14–18 years 25 mcg, adults 19+ years 30 mcg, pregnant people 30 mcg, breastfeeding people 35 mcg. Food sources of biotin meats, eggs, fish,.liver, seeds, nuts, and some vegetables, soybeans, nuts, whole wheat. Vitamin B9 (Folate, Folic acid) Vitamin B9, also called folate or folic acid.The synthetic form of folate is folic acid. , found in supplements and fortified foods, while folate occurs naturally in foods. It is pale yellow or yellow orange in colour. Sensitive to heat so prolonged cooking or long exposure to heat should be avoided. Functions of vitamin B9 (folic acid Folic acid is essential for proper brain function and plays a key role in mental and emotional well-being. It helps in the production of DNA and RNA, the body's genetic material, and is particularly important during periods of rapid cell and tissue growth, such as infancy, adolescence, and pregnancy. Folic acid also works closely with vitamin B12 to produce red blood cells and ensure the proper function of iron in the body. Vitamin B9, in conjunction with vitamins B6 and B12 and other nutrients, helps regulate blood levels of the amino acid homocysteine. High levels of homocysteine are linked to heart disease, although researchers are still uncertain whether homocysteine directly causes heart disease or simply serves as an indicator of it. Deficiency of vitamin B9(folic acid) Low levels of folic acid are relatively common and can be caused by conditions such as alcoholism, inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), and celiac disease. Certain medications may also reduce folic acid levels in the body. A deficiency in folic acid can lead to :Poor growth, Inflammation of the tongue, Gingivitis, Loss of appetite, Shortness of breath, Diarrhea, Irritability, Forgetfulness, Mental fatigue or sluggishness. Pregnant women require increased folic acid intake to reduce the risk of neural tube defects, such as cleft palate, spina bifida, and brain damage. Neural tube defects occur due to abnormal development of the neural tube, a structure which later forms the brain and spinal cord. Sources of vitamin 9 (folic acid) Sources of folate include: Spinach, Dark leafy greens, Asparagus, Soybeans, Liver, Beans, peas, nuts. Root vegetables, Whole grains, Wheat germ, Salmon, Orange, lemons, bananas, melons, strawberries, Avocado, Milk, Multivitamins. Recommended daily allowance Pediatric: Infants, 0 to 6 months 65 mcg (AI), Infants, 7 to 12 months 80 mcg (AI), Children, 1 to 3 years 150 mcg (RDA), Children, 4 to 8 years 200 mcg (RDA), Children, 9 to 13 years 300 mcg (RDA), Teens, 14 to 18 years 400 mcg (RDA). Adult (Men and women), 19 years and older 400 mcg (RDA), Pregnant women 600 mcg (RDA), Breastfeeding women 500 mcg (RDA). Vitamin B12 (cobalamin) Vitamin B-12 is also known as cobalamin. Functions of vitamin B12 It plays an essential role in red blood cell formation, cell metabolism, nerve function and the production of DNA/ DNA synthesis. the molecules within cells that carry genetic information. Deficiency of vitamin B13 (cobalamin) Vitamin B-12 deficiency is rare, but vegetarian or those on vegan diets may be at higher risk since plant-based foods do not contain vitamin B-12. Older adults and those with digestive disorders that affect nutrient absorption are also more susceptible to a deficiency. If left untreated, a vitamin B-12 deficiency can result in anemia, fatigue, muscle weakness, digestive issues, nerve damage, and mood changes. Recommended daily allowance The recommended daily amount of vitamin B-12 for Children 9–13 years 1.8 mcg, Teens 14–18 years 2.4 mcg, Adults 2.4 mcg, in Pregnancy 2.6 mcg *micrograms (mcg). Sources of vitamin B12( cobalamin ) poultry, meat, fish and dairy products, fortified cereals. Vitamin C (ascorbic acid) Vitamin C, or ascorbic acid, is an essential nutrient and water soluble. The body can not manufacture it, but should be obtained from vitamin C–rich foods. Vitamin C is typically white or colorless in its pure form. However, when it is in a crystalline form, it may appear as a light yellowish or off- white powder. This color variation can result from impurities or the processing method.In foods or supplements, vitamin C may not be easily visible, as it is often combined with other ingredients. However, in its natural sources, such as citrus fruits, strawberries, and peppers, vitamin C- rich foods do not typically appear colorless. These foods often contain additional compounds like flavonoids and carotenoids, which contribute to their vibrant colors. Vitamin C (ascorbic acid) is relatively unstable and can lose its potency when exposed to certain environmental conditions. Its stability is influenced by factors such as light, heat, oxygen, pH, and storage conditions. Light: UV and bright light can cause vitamin C to degrade. For this reason, vitamin C supplements are often packaged in opaque containers to minimize light exposure.  Heat: High temperatures can significantly reduce vitamin C stability. Cooking at high temperatures or for extended periods can cause substantial vitamin C loss in food. Eg boiling vegetables can lead to a significant reduction in their vitamin C content. Steaming or microwaving at lower temperatures is less damaging to vitamin C than boiling. Oxygen: Oxidation is a major factor in vitamin C degradation. Exposure to oxygen can cause ascorbic acid to break down into dehydroascorbic acid, which is less effective. To prevent this, vitamin C is often packaged in airtight or vacuum-sealed containers. Crushed or powdered vitamin C is particularly vulnerable to oxidation, leading to potency loss over time. pH: Vitamin C is most stable in an acidic environment (low pH). When exposed to a more alkaline environment (higher pH), ascorbic acid becomes more prone to degradation. Vitamin C is maintained in an acidic pH for better stability. Storage Conditions: To maximize shelf life, vitamin C should be stored in cool, dry, and dark places. Humid or warm environments can accelerate its breakdown. Processing: Processing of food can also affect its vitamin C content. Methods like drying, canning, or preserving food at high temperatures can result in significant loss vitamin C. Interaction with Other Compounds: Certain metals, such as copper and iron, can speed up the oxidation of vitamin C. Functions of Vitamin C 1. Antioxidant Protection: Vitamin C acts as a powerful antioxidant, it helps to shield cells from oxidative damage caused by free radicals. This contributes to a reduced risk of chronic conditions like heart disease, cancer, and diabetes. 2. Collagen Production: Vitamin C is vital for the synthesis of collagen, a protein that supports the structure of skin, blood vessels, bones, and connective tissues. This makes it crucial for wound healing and maintaining the health of skin, cartilage, and joints. 3. Immune Support: Vitamin C boosts the immune system by enhancing the function and production of white blood cells, which help the body fight off infections. It also strengthens the skin’s defenses against harmful pathogens. 4. Iron Absorption: Vitamin C enhances the absorption of non-heme iron (the type of iron found in plant-based foods) in the digestive system, this helps to prevent iron deficiency anemia. 5. Wound Healing: As a result of its role in collagen synthesis, vitamin C is essential for efficient wound healing. It accelerates tissue repair and regeneration, aiding in faster recovery from injuries. 6.Neurotransmitter Production: Vitamin C plays a key role in synthesizing neurotransmitters such as serotonin and norepinephrine, which are crucial for mood regulation, cognitive health, and overall brain function. 7. Protection Against Chronic Diseases: As an antioxidant, vitamin C helps neutralize free radicals, which may contribute to aging and the onset of chronic diseases such as cardiovascular disease, cancer, and eye disorders like cataracts. 8. Skin Health: Vitamin C is vital for maintaining healthy skin by promoting collagen production, which supports skin elasticity and structure. It also helps protect the skin from UV damage and slows down the aging process by combating oxidative stress. 9. Inflammation Reduction: Vitamin C helps lower inflammation in the body by regulating immune responses and reducing inflammatory agents. 10. Cardiovascular Support: Vitamin C promotes heart health by improving blood vessel function and reducing the buildup of plaque in arteries. It may also help lower blood pressure and enhance overall blood circulation. Vitamin C Deficiency Severe, deficiency of ascorbic acid causes scurvy though rare. Initial symptoms of scurvy may include: malaise, fatigue, gum inflammation. As vitamin C deficiency progresses; it leads to weakness of the connective tissues, which may result to: hyperkeratosis, (thickening of the outer layer of the skin), petechiae ( small blood spots beneath the surface of the skin or mucus membranes), purpura (rash of purple spots due to bleeding from small blood vessels beneath the skin), bruising, corkscrew hairs, wound healing issues, joint pain. Potential signs and symptoms include: depression, bleeding gums, tooth loss, iron deficiency anemia. Scurvy is treated with the use of vitamin c supplements, children may require up to 300 mg per day, while adults may require between 500 mg and 1000 mg per day. Recommended daily allowance for vitamin c: Infants: 0-6 months: 40 mg/day. 7-12 months: 50 mg/day. Children: 1-3 years: 15 mg/day, 4-8 years: 25 mg/day, 9-13 years: 45 mg/day Adolescents: Males 14-18 years: 75 mg/day, Females 14-18 years: 65 mg/day Adults: Males 19 years and older: 90 mg/day, Females 19 years and older: 75 mg/day Pregnant Women: Pregnant teens (14-18 years): 80 mg/day, Pregnant adults (19 years and older): 85 mg/day. Breastfeeding women: Breastfeeding teens (14-18 years): 115 mg/day Breastfeeding adults (19 years and older): 120 mg/day Smokers: Smokers require an additional 35 mg/day of vitamin C due to increased oxidative stress and the depletion of vitamin C caused by smoking. Food Sources of vitamin c Citrus fruits (oranges, lemon, grapefruit, and lime) berries, melon, tropical fruits, (pineapples, pawpaw, soursop, udala, guavas, mango, papaya (pawpaw, pineapple, kiwi and others’, green leafy vegetables, peppers, cabbage, tomatoes, strawberries, blackcurrants, broccoli, spinach, brussels sprouts, cauliflower, potatoes,