Basic Networking and History of OS Reviewer PDF

**Switches** are the **foundation of most business networks**. - - **Routers connect multiple networks together**. They also **connect computers on those networks to the Internet**. - **An access point\*** **allows devices to connect to the wireless network without cables**. An **acces...

**Switches** are the **foundation of most business networks**. - - **Routers connect multiple networks together**. They also **connect computers on those networks to the Internet**. - **An access point\*** **allows devices to connect to the wireless network without cables**. An **access point** **acts like an amplifier for your network**. *\*Access points support different IEEE standards. Each standard is an amendment that was ratified over time. The standards operate on varying frequencies, deliver different bandwidth, and support different numbers of channels.* Wireless Networking To create your wireless network, you can choose between three types of deployment: centralized deployment, converged deployment, and cloud-based deployment. **1. Centralized deployment** The **most common type of wireless network system**, **centralized deployments are traditionally used in campuses where buildings and networks are in close proximity**. **2. Converged deployment** For **small campuses or branch offices**, **converges wired and wireless on one network device---an access switch---and performs the dual role of both switch and wireless controller**. **3. Cloud-based deployment** **uses the cloud to manage network devices deployed on-premises at different locations**. The solution requires **Cisco Meraki cloud-managed devices\***, which provide full visibility of the network through their dashboards. *\*Cisco Meraki cloud-managed devices are network devices that can be managed remotely through a cloud-based platform.* How Does a Computer Network Work? Basics building blocks of a Computer network are **Nodes and Links**. A **Network Node** can be illustrated as Equipment for Data Communication like a Modem, Router, etc., or Equipment of a Data Terminal like connecting two computers or more. **Link** in Computer Networks can be defined as wires or cables or free space of wireless networks. What do Computer Networks do? **Computer networks** were first developed in 1950 for military and defense purposes. At that time they were mainly used to send data through telephone lines and had limited use in business or science. Basic Terminologies of Computer Networks - - - - - - - - Types of Enterprise Computer Networks - - - These are just a few basic concepts of computer networking. Networking is a vast and complex field, and there are many more concepts and technologies involved in building and maintaining networks. Now we are going to discuss some more concepts on Computer Networking. - - Types of Computer Network Architecture Computer Network falls under these broad Categories: - - Network Devices An interconnection of multiple devices, also known as hosts. Some basic Protocols are: - - - - The most widely recognized reference models are the **Open Systems Interconnect ( OSI** ) Model and **Department of Defense ( DoD, also known as TCP/IP )** model. - - - - - - - An **Internetwork** is a general term describing multiple networks connected together. The Internet is the largest and most well-known internetwork. - - - OSI stands for Open Systems Interconnection. It is a reference model that specifies standards for communications protocols and also the functionalities of each layer. Each layer of OSI has different functions and each layer has to follow different protocols. - - - - - - - - Network Protocols A **protocol** is a set of rules or algorithms which define the way how two entities can communicate across the network and there exists a different protocol defined at each layer of the OSI model. A few such protocols are TCP, IP, UDP, ARP, DHCP, FTP, and so on. **Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP**): TCP/IP is the foundational protocol suite of the internet, enabling reliable communication. tination based on IP addresses. **Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) and HTTPS**: HTTP and HTTPS protocols used for transmitting web pages. In HTTP communication is unsecured and in HTTPS secured communication using SSL/TLS encryption. **Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP)**: used to send email.. **File Transfer Protocol (FTP)**: used for transferring files between computers.. **Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol** (DHCP): automatically assigns IP addresses to devices on a network. **Domain Name System (DNS)**: Translates human-friendly domain names into IP addresses. Unique Identifiers of Network Hostname: unique device name **IP Address (Internet Protocol address)**: Also known as the Logical Address, the IP Address is the network address of the system across the network. To identify each device in the world-wide-web, the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) assigns an IPV4 (Version 4) address as a unique identifier to each device on the Internet. The length of an IPv4 address is 32 bits, hence, we have 232 IP addresses available. The length of an IPv6 address is 128 bits. **MAC Address (Media Access Control address):** Also known as physical address, is the unique identifier of each host and is associated with its NIC (Network Interface Card). length of the MAC address is: 12-nibble/ 6 bytes/ 48 bits. Port: logical channel which data can be sent/received to an application. A port number is a 16-bit integer, hence, we have 216 ports available which are categorized as shown below: Port Types Range Well known Ports 0 -- 1023 Registered Ports 1024 -- 49151 Ephemeral Ports 49152 -- 65535 Number of ports: 65,536 Range: 0 -- 65535 Socket: The unique combination of IP address and Port number together is termed a Socket. Other Related Concepts **DNS Server**: DNS stands for Domain Name System. DNS is basically a server that translates web addresses or URLs (ex: www.google.com) into their corresponding IP addresses. **ARP**: ARP stands for Address Resolution Protocol. It is used to convert an IP address to its corresponding physical address(i.e., MAC Address). ARP is used by the Data Link Layer to identify the MAC address of the Receiver's machine. **RARP:** RARP stands for Reverse Address Resolution Protocol. As the name suggests, it provides the IP address of the device given a physical address as input. But RARP has become obsolete since the time DHCP has come into the picture. The Domain Name System (DNS) is a critical component of computer networking. It converts easily recognizable domain names, such as www.example.com, into numerical IP addresses that computers use to identify each other on the network. How DNS Works? DNS works efficiently, translating user-friendly domain names into IP addresses, allowing seamless navigation on the internet. Below step by step working of DNS: User Input: When a user enters a domain name in a browser, the system needs to find its IP address. DNS Query: The user's device sends a DNS query to the DNS resolver. Resolver Request: The DNS resolver checks its cache for the IP address. If not found, it forwards the request to the root DNS server. Root DNS Server: The root DNS server provides the address of the TLD (Top-Level Domain) server for the specific domain extension (e.g.,.com). TLD DNS Server: The TLD server directs the resolver to the authoritative DNS server for the actual domain. Authoritative DNS Server: The authoritative DNS server knows the IP address for the domain and provides it to the resolver. Response to User: The resolver stores the IP address in its cache and sends it to the user's device. Access Website: With the IP address, the user's device can access the desired website. Network Security Ensuring the security of a network is crucial to protect data and resources from unauthorized access and attacks. Key aspects of network security include: Firewalls: Devices or software that monitor and control incoming and outgoing network traffic based on security rules. Encryption: The process of encoding data to prevent unauthorized access. Commonly used in VPNs, HTTPS, and secure email. Intrusion Detection Systems (IDS): Tools that monitor network traffic for suspicious activity and potential threats. Access Control: Mechanisms that restrict access to network resources based on user identity and role. Regular Updates and Patching: Keeping software and hardware up to date to protect against vulnerabilities. Frequently Asked Questions on Basics of Computer Networking -- FAQs What is an IP address? An IP (Internet Protocol) address is a unique identifier assigned to each device on a network. It allows devices to locate and communicate with each other. There are two types of IP addresses: IPv4 (e.g., 192.168.1.1) and IPv6 (e.g., 2001:0db8:85a3:0000:0000:8a2e:0370:7334). What is the difference between TCP and UDP? TCP (Transmission Control Protocol): A connection-oriented protocol that ensures reliable and ordered delivery of data. It is used for applications where data integrity is critical, like web browsing and email. UDP (User Datagram Protocol): A connectionless protocol that does not guarantee delivery or order. It is used for applications where speed is more important than reliability, like streaming and gaming. What is a firewall? A firewall is a network security device or software that monitors and controls incoming and outgoing network traffic based on predefined security rules. It acts as a barrier between a trusted internal network and untrusted external networks like the internet. What is a subnet mask? A subnet mask is used in IP addressing to divide the network into sub-networks, or subnets. It helps determine which portion of an IP address is the network address and which part is the host address. What is NAT (Network Address Translation)? NAT is a method used by routers to translate private IP addresses within a local network to a public IP address before sending data over the internet. This helps to conserve IP addresses and add a layer of security by hiding internal network addresses. What is a MAC address? A MAC (Media Access Control) address is a unique identifier assigned to a network interface card (NIC) for communication on a physical network segment. It is a hardware address that is unique to each network device.. What is latency in networking? Latency is the time it takes for data to travel from the source to the destination across a network. It is usually measured in milliseconds (ms) and can affect the performance of networked applications. The history of operating systems (OS) is rich and complex, tracing the evolution of computing from early hardware-dependent systems to modern multi-functional software platforms. Here\'s a detailed chronological overview: ### **1. Early Computing (1940s--1950s)** **No Operating Systems** - - - ### **2. First Generation Operating Systems (1950s--Early 1960s)** **Single-Tasking and Batch Systems** - - - ### **3. Second Generation (1960s)** **Multiprogramming and Time-Sharing** - - - ### **4. Third Generation (1970s)** **Unix and Personal Computing** - - - - ### **5. Fourth Generation (1980s)** **Graphical User Interfaces and Networking** - - - - - ### **6. Fifth Generation (1990s)** **The Rise of Modern OS** - - - - ### **7. Sixth Generation (2000s--Present)** **Mobile and Cloud Computing** - - - - - - ### **8. Key Trends and Modern Innovations** - - - - The evolution of operating systems reflects the technological and cultural shifts of computing, from monolithic mainframes to personal, mobile, and cloud-based systems. Each step in their development solved emerging needs, paving the way for the seamless, interconnected experiences we enjoy today. From a personal project to a global phenomenon, Linux\'s history is a testament to the power of open-source development and community-driven innovation. Computer hardware includes the physical parts of a computer, such as a case, central processing unit (CPU), random access memory (RAM), monitor, and mouse which processes the input according to the set of instructions provided to it by the user and gives the desired output. The computer has mainly has two major components: Hardware Software In this article, we only discuss computer hardware. What is Computer Hardware? Computer hardware is a physical device of computers that we can see and touch. For e.g. Monitor, Central Processing Unit, Mouse, Joystick, etc. Using these devices, we can control computer operations like input and output. Computer Hardware Parts These hardware components are further divided into the following categories, which are: Input Devices Output Devices Storage Devices Internal Components 1\. Input Devices Input devices are those devices with the help of which the user interacts with the computer. Or, In other words, with the help of input devices, the user enters the data or information into the computer. This information or data is accepted by the input devices and converted into a computer-acceptable format, which is further sent to the computer system for processing. Now we discuss some input devices: Keyboard: It is the most common and main input device for computers. The data is inputted by typing on the keyboard. It consists of 104 keys in total. It contains numeric keys, alphabet keys, and different function keys as well. Earlier, it was connected to the computer via cable, now as technology has advanced, you can connect a keyboard using Bluetooth. Mouse: A mouse is a kind of pointing device which is rolled over to control the cursor on the screen and it has functional keys like left, middle, and right buttons. Using these functional keys, on by the click of which an object is selected or to open a file by just a click of a mouse. It also consists of a sensor inside which notifies its speed to the computer and according to which the cursor is moved on the screen. Scanner: As the name suggests, it scans images, documents, etc., and converts them into digital form and that can be further edited and used. It works just like a Xerox machine. Track Ball: It is a device much like an upside-down mouse. It does not use much space for movement like a mouse. As the trackball remains stationary and the user moves the ball in various directions, it affects the screen movements directly. Light Pen: It is a light-sensitive device and it is touched to the CRT screen where it can detect, a raster on the screen as it passes by and, with the help of this user can draw anything like lines, figures, or any objects. Microphone: It is a kind of voice input system that can be attached to a computer system to record sounds. It converts human speech or voice into electrical signals. This electrical signal is processed by the computer and the word is recognized. Optical Character Reader: It is used to detect alphanumeric characters that are written or printed on paper using a low-frequency light source. This light is absorbed by the dark areas and reflected by the light areas, now this reflected light is received by the photocells. It is like a scanner. Bar Code Reader: It is used to read bar codes and convert them into electric pulse which will further processed by the computer. Here, the barcode is data that is coded into white and black lines(or light and dark lines). 2\. Output Devices These are the devices that are used to display the output of any task given to the computer in human-readable form. Now we discuss some output devices: Monitor: The monitor is the main output device. It is also called VDU(visual display unit) and it looks like a TV screen. The Monitor displays the information from the computer. It is used to display text, video, images, etc. Printer: A printer is an output device that transfers data from the computer in a printed format by using text or images on paper. There are both colored and black & white printers. Further, there are also different types of printers, like Laser Printer, Dot-matrix printers, and Inkjet printers. Plotter: It is similar to a printer but potters are large in size. A plotter is used to generate large drawings, architectural blueprints, etc. on paper and these are high-quality images and drawings and large in size. Speakers: It is a very common output device and it gives sound as an output. Speaker is generally used to play music or anything having sound. 3\. Storage Devices There are some devices that are used for storage purposes and are known as secondary storage devices. Some of them were discussed below: 1\. CD (Compact disc): A CD is circular in shape and made up of thin platted glass and plastic polycarbonate material. It has a storage capacity of 600 MB to 700 MB of data. It has a standard size of 12 cm with a hole in the center of about 1.5 cm and 1.2 mm in thickness. There are basically 3 types of CDs, which are: CD-ROM (CD -- Read Only Memory): Contents of this type of CD cannot be erased by the user. Only the publisher is allowed to access the data imprinted on this CD. CD-ROM is basically used for commercial purposes like for a music album or any application package by a software company. CD-R (CD-Recordable): In this, content or data can be stored once. After that, they can be read many times but the data or content cannot be rewritten or erased. (Kind of one-time use) CD-RW(CD-Rewritable): As the name suggests, this type of CD is used to rewrite the content or erase previous content and again write new content many times. 2\. DVD (Digital Video/Versatile Disc): A DVD is the same as a CD but with some more features. A DVD comes in single and dual-layer formats. It has much greater storage capacity in comparison to CD. The storage capacity of a DVD with one-sided single layer is -- 4.7 GB, one-sided double layer -- 8.5 GB, double-sided single layer -- 9.4 GB, and double-sided double layer -- 17 GB. There are also some types in DVDs, which are : DVD-ROM: In this type, the contents of the DVD cannot be written on or erased by the user. DVD ROM is used for applications and database for distributing them in large amounts. DVD-R / DVD+R: DVD-R (DVD minus R) and DVD+R (DVD plus R) are two different kinds of discs and they are once recordable format. Also, they have no difference virtually. DVD-RW / DVD+RW: This is a kind of rewritable disc and it allows up to 1,000 rewrites. DVD-RAM: DVD RAM is accessed like a hard disk. It provides high data security and storage capacity. This is a kind of rewritable disc and it allows up to 1,00,000 rewrites. 3\. Hard Disk: An hard disk is a non-volatile storage device that uses its read/write heads to store digital data on a magnetic surface of a rigid plate. It is generally 3.5 inches in size for desktops and 2.5 inches in size for laptops. A hard disk can be classified further into 3 types, which are: Internal Hard Disk: It has a common storage capacity stated as GB or TB. A system case or cabinet is the place where it is located. It can perform faster operations and its storage is fixed. It is mainly used to store large data files and programs. Internal Cartridges: The Internal hard disk can't be removed from the system cabinet easily. To resolve this problem Internal Cartridges are introduced. So, Internal cartridges are easy to remove CDs. It has a storage capacity of 2 GB to 160 GB. It is used as an alternative to an internal hard disk. Hard Disk Packs: It is used by organizations such as banks, and government sector organizations to store large amounts of data. It has a storage capacity of a range of PB( Peta Bytes). Hardware Components Some important hardware devices known as the internal components are discussed below: 1\. CPU (Central Processing Unit) The CPU is also known as the heart of the computer. It consists of three units, generally known as the control unit, Arithmetic Logical Unit (ALU), and the memory unit. Below is the block diagram of the CPU is given: As shown in the diagram input is given to the CPU through input devices. This input goes to memory and the control unit gets instructions from memory. The control unit now decides what to do with the input or instructions and transfers it to ALU. Now, ALU performs various operations like addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, logical operations, etc. After that, the final result gets stored in memory and finally passed to output devices to give the output. So, this is how the CPU works. 2\. Motherboard It is the main circuit board inside a computer and it contains most of the electronic components together. All the components of the computer are directly or indirectly connected to the motherboard. It includes RAM slots, controllers, system chipsets, etc. 3\. RAM (Random Access Memory) It is also known as temporary or volatile memory. It holds the program and data, which are currently in process or processing. All the data is erased as soon as the computer is turned off or in case of a power failure. Data stored in this memory can be changed. There are two types of RAM:- SRAM (Static RAM): SRAM basically consists of a flip-flop using a transistor or Mosfet (MOS). It is fast and has less access time. In this refreshing circuits are not required. But it is costly and requires more space. For e.g. cache memory. DRAM (Dynamic RAM): DRAM consists of capacitors and the data is stored in the form of capacitors. Capacitors charge when data is 1 and don't charge if data is 0. It requires refreshing circuits, as leakage of current in the capacitor can occur, so they need to be refreshed to the data. It is slower and has a higher access time. It is cheaper in comparison with SRAM. For e.g. Main memory. 4\. Video Graphics Array Port A video input commonly used on computer monitors is called a video graphics array (VGA) port. Verifying that there isn't a loose connection, a damaged cable, or a broken display is one step in troubleshooting a VGA port. Compressed air can also be sprayed inside the VGA port by a computer expert to make sure it's dust-free. 5\. Power Supply All of a computer system's parts are powered by a power source. Typically, a power cord is used to connect a computer tower to an electrical outlet. By turning off the computer, unplugging and separating the power supply cord, or trying a different cord or socket, a technician can diagnose the power supply. 6\. Cooling Fan A computer's system to prevent overheating uses cooling fans. To aid customers who use their computers intensively, such as when streaming video or playing games, many computers contain more than one cooling fan. If a user detects their computer overheating, a computer expert might need to repair the cooling fan. The blades may be examined for any damage and cleared of any foreign objects. A technician's standard method of troubleshooting may involve replacing computer fans. 7\. Hard Drive On a computer system, files, programs, and other types of information are stored on hard drives, which are data storage devices. They utilise hard drives, which are magnetically coated discs used to store digital versions of information. A computer technician can suspect a corrupt hard disk when a hard drive dies. Relationship Between Computer Hardware and Software Both the Hardware and software are mutually dependent on each other. Each should function properly so that the computer produces an output. Software utilization can not be done without supporting of the hardware. Relevant software should be loaded into the hardware to get the latest software. Hardware is a one-time expense while software is not. Software development is very expensive while hardware cant be developed if in use once. Many software applications and their sub-applications can be loaded on hardware to run different jobs. The software acts as an interface between the user and the hardware. FAQs on Computer hardware Q.1 Why is computer hardware important? Answer: The term hardware for a computer system refers to the actual, physical tools and components that support crucial operations including input, processing (internal storage, computation, and control), output, secondary storage (for data and programs), and communication. Q.2 How does SCCM handle hardware inventory? Answer: SCCM's hardware inventory gathers data on hardware components utilized throughout your IT infrastructure. You must enable a few parameters before you can begin collecting hardware inventory data. Once the hardware inventory settings have been enabled, it is simple to store inventory data in the SCCM database. Q.3 What is the basic use of hardware? Answer Hardware describes the physical parts of the computer or its delivery systems for the software's written instructions to be stored and executed. Q.4 How do you make a computer run faster? Answer: Consider giving your computer extra RAM if you've previously removed debris from the interior and uninstalled any superfluous files or apps. Your CPU will normally operate more efficiently with extra memory, which could improve performance. Be it any programming language in which you want to grow your career, it's very important to learn the fundamentals first. Before having a good command over the basic concepts of programming, you cannot imagine the growth in that particular career. Hence, this article will talk about all the basic concepts of programming. Basics of Computer Programming For Beginners Also, if you're a beginner aiming to be a software engineer? Students often seek coding homework assistance from experts when they are beginners or stuck with their difficult programming tasks. Then you have landed on the right article. This article is specially designed to give you a glimpse into programming and take a deep dive into the fundamentals of programming that most neglect but yet are most important to know. Table of Content What is a Computer? What is a Program (Code)? Variables and Syntax in Programming Data Types in Programming Flow Control Structures in Programming Why do we need to Learn Any Programming Language? Programming Methods What is an Algorithm? Top Most Popular Programming Languages Benefits of Learning Programming Languages What is a Computer? A computer is an electronic device that will take input from the user, process it, and give results or respond as per the user. The computer is a programmable computational device. The components of a computer are: Input Unit Central Processing Unit(CPU) Output Unit CPU is known as the brain of the computer system. All the operations within the system are supervised & controlled by the CPU. It interprets and coordinates the instructions. The CPU control all internal & external devices, perform arithmetic and logical operation, controls memory usage, and control the sequence of operation. Performing all these operations the CPU has 3 sub-units: Arithmetic and Logical Unit Control Unit Memory Unit By this point, you will know a bit about computers and their components. Also read Basics of Computer and its Operations Now moving on to the next topic. What is a Program (Code)? Suppose I give you 10 numbers and tell you to find the average of the given 10 numbers, then how do you find the average? You add all those numbers and then divide the sum of the numbers by the total numbers given. Easy task yeah. Now, if 10 sets and each set contain 10 numbers then what would you do? For this problem, there are two solutions to solve the problem. You take one set, add each number then divide it by the total numbers. If you are thinking to solve this problem by this procedure, then it is right to solve by this but if you are going to be a software engineer then solving the problem through this approach is not preferred. You can write a program to solve the problem. Just you need to write a program in which the computer takes input from the user and then it uses a procedure to find the average. I have used the word procedure many times, what does it mean? We define a procedure by giving steps one by one to our computer system and we call it a program. Like, taking numbers from a user, adding them, and dividing the sum by the total number is a procedure. In short, a program is a set of instructions. Related Article: Programming Language Generations Variables and Syntax in Programming Variables are sort of containers for storing data values, and it is also memory location for the data type. There are certain rules that need to be followed before declaring them. Variables are generally names allocated to values. The names are alphanumeric, i.e., they have a-z and 0-9. Also, you can use special characters while declaring a variable such as \$ or \_. While writing a program be it for a small operation (addition, multiplication) or building an application, you need to require variables. The variable declared for a value should start with an alphabet and later may include numbers or special characters. Syntax is a set of rules that defines the structure of a language. Every programming language follows a different syntax. A programming language isn't understandable without its syntax. Syntax helps the computer to read and understand the code. It is like giving instructions to the code. For example, int a =10; here a is variable int is data type 10 is value Data Types in Programming Data type is a classification specifying the type of value stored in a variable. It also indicates what type of operation can be applied to it. Data Types are generally classified into two types: Primitive -- It specifies the size and type of variable. There are eight primitive types int (4 bytes) short (2 bytes) long (8 bytes) float (4 bytes) double (8 bytes) boolean (1 byte) char (2 bytes) Non-Primitive -- Non-primitive types are used to call methods to perform operations. String (8 bytes) Arrays Class (empty class -- 1 byte) Interface Flow Control Structures in Programming Flow Control Structures are the ways to specify the flow of controls in a program. A program is well clear when control structures are used in it. Its main purpose is to analyze the program. They are 3 types: Sequential -- Sequential is the execution of code line by line or one after the other. For example, cooking an item. Selection -- Selection is deciding whether the given condition is true or false and on the basis of which it produces the final result. Iteration (Loops) -- A loop is a structure in which a statement is repeated again and again until the given condition is satisfied. They are of three types -- For While Do-While To read more: Flow Control Structures Why do we need to Learn Any Programming Language? A computer or any programmable device understands machine language because the computer works on electricity and electricity works on binary numbers (0 and 1). We humans only understand natural language. To fulfill this gap between humans and computers programming language is introduced. What happens if either human understands machine language, or a machine understands natural language? If that happens then we don't need to know any programming language to give instructions to machines and anyone can be a programmer if that situation happens. Also Read: Which Programming Language Should I Choose as a Beginner? Programming Methods There are three programming methodologies so far mostly used. Monolithic Programming Modular/ Procedural Programming Object Oriented Programming Monolithic Programming: It was practiced when programming was just introduced. In monolithic programming, everything from code, data, and instruction, is in a single file which makes it difficult to review the code. We are not reusing the code. Modular/ Procedural Programming: Procedural programming helps to divide the work among a team, and we also use function so that it allows for to reuse of the code. Data and function are used separately. Object Oriented Programming: OOPs are widely used in industries, we take data and functions together and created them as a class. In all these programming methods codes remain the same, and the logic remains the same but one thing changes is how you organize your program code. What is an Algorithm? The algorithm is a step-by-step procedure for solving computational problems. Programs mean the same, is it? Every programming language follows a specific syntax that allows us to write code so that it is easily understandable to the machine. Whereas, in the algorithm, we write pseudocode. Pseudocode is an informal language that helps programmers develop algorithms. It is neither in English nor in code. Let's see pseudocode for the algorithm of an average of numbers. sum == 0, n= total number of elements for each element num in list begin sum = sum + num average = sum/x return average Top Most Popular Programming Languages Learning a programming language before learning any technology is a must, hence, it's very important to have full command of anyone programming language. Choosing anyone programming language instead of going for many is better. Try working on basic problems using different programming languages, and whichever seems easy to you, you can prefer working on that. C/C++ Java JavaScript Python Kotlin Swift R Ruby Scala TypeScript If you are planning to learn to program, then you might start with any one of the above. Benefits of Learning Programming Languages As learning a new programming language can be a bit difficult task for the newcomers but gives a lot of added advantage in excelling the career. Some of the primary benefits of learning popular programming languages include: It directly allows you to be more creative in tasks like website designing, app development, etc. It can help in developing structured and creative thinking by allowing you to think about problems from different perspectives. It also helps you to develop logical thinking skills by teaching you how to identify patterns and give instructions to computers. Advances your career with new scope of learning and make you a potential candidate along with others. Also, it focuses on the practical learning experience where along with codes, you may expect the better project results to be on top of competitions, hackathons, etc. Conclusion If you're a beginner and want to enter the world of programming, this article covers everything you need to know as a beginner in programming. Start from the basics and slowly dive deep into the fundamentals and advanced concepts as well. Get ready to start this programming journey and try to explore as much as you can. The history of computers spans several centuries, beginning with early mechanical calculation devices and evolving into the sophisticated digital machines we use today. Below is a detailed account of the history of computers: ### **1. Pre-Modern Era: Early Calculation Devices (Before 1800s)** **Abacus (circa 2400 BCE)** - **Antikythera Mechanism (circa 100 BCE)** - **Napier's Bones (1617)** - **Pascaline (1642)** - **Leibniz\'s Stepped Reckoner (1672)** - ### **2. First Generation: Mechanical Computers (1800--1930s)** **Jacquard Loom (1804)** - **Difference Engine and Analytical Engine (1822, 1837)** - **Ada Lovelace (1843)** - **Tabulating Machine (1889)** - ### **3. Second Generation: Electromechanical Computers (1930s--1940s)** **Zuse Z3 (1941)** - **Harvard Mark I (1944)** - **Colossus (1943--1944)** - **ENIAC (1945)** - ### **4. Third Generation: Early Electronic Computers (1940s--1950s)** **Stored Program Concept** - **UNIVAC I (1951)** - **Transistor-Based Machines (1950s)** - ### **5. Fourth Generation: Integrated Circuits and Miniaturization (1960s--1970s)** **Integrated Circuits (1958)** - **Mainframes and Minicomputers** - - **Mouse and GUI (1968)** - ### **6. Fifth Generation: Personal Computers (1970s--1980s)** **Microprocessors (1971)** - **Altair 8800 (1975)** - **Apple Computers** - - **IBM PC (1981)** - **Microsoft** - ### **7. Sixth Generation: Networking and the Internet (1980s--1990s)** **ARPANET and the Internet** - **World Wide Web (1991)** - **Laptops and Mobile Computing** - ### **8. Seventh Generation: Modern Computing (2000s--Present)** **Cloud Computing** - **Smartphones and Tablets** - **AI and Quantum Computing** - - **IoT (Internet of Things)** - ### **9. Future Directions** - - - The journey of computers showcases humanity\'s ingenuity in solving problems, from basic calculations to creating interconnected systems that power modern life. The continuous evolution promises even greater advancements in the years to come.