Banana Handout 2024 PDF

1 Chap III. BANANAS (Musa spp) 3.1 Introduction The banana plant is a tall arborescent monocotyledon with false stem (pseudo stem) consisting of the leaf sheath and an underground true stem that is able to produce suckers by which the plant can reproduce vegetatively. Each pseudostem can produce a...

1 Chap III. BANANAS (Musa spp) 3.1 Introduction The banana plant is a tall arborescent monocotyledon with false stem (pseudo stem) consisting of the leaf sheath and an underground true stem that is able to produce suckers by which the plant can reproduce vegetatively. Each pseudostem can produce a single inflorescence the female flowers of which give rise (either parthenocarpically or following fertilization) to the banana fruit. The general term “banana” is used to encompass cultivated varieties of the genus Musa that fall into one of the two sub groups; the sweet or dessert banana which makes approximately 43 % of the world production and the cooking banana which makes approximately 57%. The general term “plantain” is applied to a specific group of cooking banana. Worldwide over 1000 cultivars or landraces are recognized. Banana is mainly a food crop which is also used as a dessert. The banana fruit can be eaten cooked or row (eg. Deep fried, dehydrated, and baked in the skin, steamed), can be processed into flour and can be fermented for the production of the beverage such as banana juice, banana beer (Urwagwa), banana wine and vinegar. Other parts of the plant are also eaten eg. Flower is eaten raw or cooked in southern east of Asia. Very rarely banana is consumed dry or ground to powder. Most often, animals are fed with banana in powder form. Musa textilis, a species within the genus Musa is used for extraction of fibers in Philippines and Equator. Banana leaves have a variety of practical uses. Bananas are a major crop globally and are consumed in more than 100 countries throughout the tropics and sub tropics. In developing countries they are the 4th most important crop after rice, wheat and maize.  2 Banana is an important commodity in the international trade of fruits, coming second after citrus. In central Africa, the per capita consumption is beyond 4 kg of banana per day. In Rwanda, banana comes second after beans and occupies around 20% of the arable lands. More than 65% of banana production comes from Africa and Rwanda is among the highest banana producing countries worldwide. 3.2 Origin and distribution The precise origin of edible banana is not known but the generally accepted theory is that Malaysia, a biogeographically region including the Malay Peninsula, Indonesia, the Philippines and New Guinea, was the primary centre and the India was the secondary centre. India sub continent has been a centre of hybridization. East Africa and West Africa represent two main secondary centers of diversity as a result of a long history of cultivation in these regions. There are approximately 60 cultivars of African highland banana unique to East Africa but it is not known whether these are from traded plants (2000 years ago) or from indigenous edible diploids. These highland plants have AAA genotype. It is thought that plantains reached West Africa 3000 years ago and that they may initially have been propagated for their starch corm and/or fibers rather than for their fruits. It is likely that dispersal out of Asia was linked entirely by human movement. Banana spread was mainly done by Europeans during 16th and 17th centuries but it became commercially important at the beginning of 19th century in Antilles. It is thought that traders from Arabia, Persia, India and Indonesia distributed banana suckers around coastal regions (except in Australia) of the Indian ocean between 5th and 15th century. From 16th to 19th century, suckers were traded by Europeans (Portuguese and Spanish) in tropical America. Further world trade saw the establishment of banana in Latin America and Caribbean. Today the cultivation of banana occurs throughout the tropics and sub tropics of Asia, America, Africa and Australia. The modern day edible banana is a mix of wild and cultivated species and hybrids associated with Mussa accuminata and Musa balbisiana. From these Mussa accuminata is the most widespread species in Musa section and the centre of diversity is thought to be either Malaysia or Indonesia because the wild ancestors of Musa are still found in forests of Malaysia. Some of the primitive edible seeded diploid of this genus evolved through the development of sterility, parthenocarpy and fleshy seedless fruits. 3.3 Botanical descriptions Banana belongs to the family of Musaceae , order of Scitaminales, genus of Musa. The Musaceae familly includes at least one other genus (Enseste), and depending upon affiliations of taxonomist may contain the monotypic genus Muscella. The genus Musa comprises several seminiferous species and a considerable number of varieties without fruits. All the genera are  3 monocotyledons and as such they are technically defined as “herbs” even some species can grow upto 15m. The perennial nature of banana is maintained through vegetative means. Within Musa genus there are 4 sections (According to the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature the term”section” is a secondary rank that is applied below genus level and above the species level) according to the morphological characteristics:  Eumusa (now Musa) and Rhodochlamys (both sections containing species with 2n=2x=22)  Callimusa and Austalimusa (both sections containing species with 2n=2x=20) Section Callimusa and Rhodochlamys consist of non-parthenocarpic species with non nutritionally valuable fruits and are important only in ornementals. Most of cultivated sweet banana and plantain belong to the section Musa and are triploid varieties that evolved from two wild species Musa acuminate given the genome designation “AA”and Musa balbisiana, given the genome designation “BB”. The formation of homogenomic triploid (2n=3x) hybrids with “AAA” genotype occurred within M.accuminata leading to the development of the cultivars that mostly comprise the sweet banana. Crosses of diploids and triploids types of M. accuminata and Musa balbisiana led to the formation of heterogenomic triploids hybrids that are mostly plantains (AAB genotype) and other cooking banana (ABB genotype). Tetraploid (2n=4x) and other diploid combinations also exists. Therefore, cultivars are grouped based on their genetic origin and their polyploidy level: - Diploids (AA genome) - Triploids (AAA genome). E.g: Gros Michel, highly cultivated some few years ago but now susceptible to Panama disease, fusariose. It also comprises sinensis group or Cavendish. E.g poyo - Triploids (ABB and AAB genomes) with the group of plantains such as French plantains and a big number of bananas for cooking. - Natural tetraploids are scarce but tetraploid hybrids have been developed from Gros Michel and its short forms.eg FHIA-01(Goldfinger) and FHIA-18(Bananza) from AAAB genome group. 3.4 Ecological requirements Bananas prefer low altitudes in humid tropics especially between 30o north and south of Equator. a) Temperature requirements The mean monthly temperature of 27o C is optimum; too high temperatures cause the drying of banana. Temperature of 21o C or less will have a negative effect on growth with a limited number of leaves and a delay in production of banana fingers. The normal production period is  4 7 – 9 months in low altitudes of the tropics but can reach up to 18 months at 1000 m altitude or in subtropical regions where temperatures are reduced. b) Water requirements The minimum water requirements for banana are approximately 25 mm per week. Annual rainfall of 2000 – 2500 mm well distributed will produce satisfactory growth. However, in some areas of Uganda, banana is grown under prolonged period of moisture stress but higher productions are achieved during the rainy season. In some areas, irrigation is used in banana production systems and banana varieties with tolerance to water stresses have also been developed. Drought tolerance genes have been introgressed into Musa balbisiana. c) Exposure Light winds will cause tearing of leaves but this is probably not a problem. Wind breaks are desirable. Heavy winds are detrimental in the sense that they break the crop and cause serious yield losses. Wind speed of more than 40 mpH causes economic losses, more than 60 mpH cause total destruction. Destructive winds and Hurricanes have caused migration of some banana producing companies in Central and South America. d) Soil requirements Bananas can be produced on different types of soils provided there is a good drainage system, adequate fertility and humidity. Ideal soils are deep, well drained, loam soils with a good water retention capacity and humus which are often of alluvial or volcanic origins. Very acid soils should be avoided. Panama disease will be more severe on Gros Michelle in acid soils and a high concentration of NaCl is not favorable. Bananas respond well to N applications and require a high amount of K. 3.5 Cultural practices a) Soil preparations Deep ploughing without disturbing soil layers is of high importance. Total cleaning of new soils is only necessary where agricultural mechanization will be used. Planting is made in holes of 80 cm deep and 80 cm wide. b) Planting density and layout Banana is either planted in triangular shape, square or rectangle. Planting in parallel line is also practiced especially in areas where agricultural machines are used. The planting density for common cultivars such as Poyo varies depending upon the country (1,600 in Central America and 2,000 in Africa) and climatic conditions (1,600 – 1,800 in countries with low light intensity and 1,800 – 2,500 in areas with high light intensity).  5 While planting, light soil is put deep in the holes the girth should be 10 - 15 cm below the soils. Banana planting is advisable during hot, however not wet season. It is also possible to plant during the dry season but irrigation should be used. c) Organic fertilizer Use of farm yard manure and compost produce excellent results; however their utilization is limited by the high cost. On acid soils where nutrients will be subjected to leaching, 500 g of lime are applied per plant annually. It is advisable to do a laboratory analysis to know the soil concentration in K-Ca-Mg. Application of nitrogen fertilizer (100 to 150 g per plant) and K2O (200 – 500 g) in two applications improve production. Use of organic fertilizer in areas with high nematodes infestation is not effective. d) Maintenance In some areas, mulching was abandoned despite its advantages. Weeding is done manually, mechanically or chemically. It is very important to know the rooting system of the plant for the choice of the correct method. Proper weeding at planting time and during the harvesting period is important to maintain the plantation clean after bananas have developed enough leaves to cover the soil. 3.6 Constraints of banana Sub-Saharan Africa produces about 35% of the world production of 70 millions of tons. This provides more than 25% of carbohydrates in the diet of approximately 70 millions of population in this region. In addition to being a staple food for rural and urban consumers, plantains and banana provide an important source of revenue for smallholders who mainly produce them in compounds or in family gardens. Major constraints of banana and plantain production are fungal diseases (black sigatoka, fusarium wilt,…), pests (banana weevil, aphids, nematodes) and the phenomena of yield decline. Soil degradation due to shortening of fallow periods also accounts for yield decline. Musa species have limited ranges of temperature tolerance within their natural habitats, which occur in hot or warm climates. No species is tolerant to frost. Sweet banana are restricted to subtropical or tropical areas between 300 N and 300 S with mean air temperature of 26.70c and mean rainfall of 100 mm per month with no more than a 3 month dry season. Generally bananas require 50-100mm per week as rainfall or supplied by irrigation.  6 3.6.1 Pests and diseases of bananas 1. Sigatoka leaf diseases Yellow and black Sigatoka, caused by the fungi Mycosphaerella musicola and M. fijiensis, respectively, are both considered as economically important leaf disease of banana. Black Sigatoka has replaced yellow Sigatoka as the most serious disease in all countries where it has been introduced, with the exception of the subtropics and in cooler, elevated areas of the tropics. Black Sigatoka does not occur in South Africa but constitutes the most serious constraint to plantain and banana production in Sub-Saharan Africa. Sigatoka diseases destroy banana leaves, which lead to a reduction in yield and premature ripening of fruit. A third Sigatoka leaf disease, Eumusae leaf spot caused by M. eumusae, has recently been reported from Southeast Asia. Spread: Mycosphaerella musicola and M. fijiensis infect banana leaves by means of asexual conidia or sexual ascospores. However, in the instance of M. fijiensis, ascospores are produced more readily than conidia. These ascospores can spread very rapidly over large areas in wind currents, and can cause major epidemics within a few years if left uncontrolled. Mycosphaerella fijiensis infects leaves at slightly higher temperatures than M. musicola. This might explain why Yellow Sigatoka still dominates in the cooler banana growing regions of the world. A. Black Sigatoka The disease was accidentally introduced into Africa two decades ago and spread rapidly first in central Africa and West Africa and later in East Africa. It causes severe defoliation reducing plantain yield by up to 33%. All plantain cultivars and as well as some of the widely grown cultivars are susceptible to black sigatoka. Symptoms: The earliest visible symptoms of Black Sigatoka are small yellow specks on the underside of the leaf that turn rusty brown in colour. The specks then grow into narrow reddish-brown or dark brown streaks. These streaks eventually become black spots that may or may not coalesce, depending on the number of infections that took place. A yellow halo then develops around the spots, the centre dries and fades to grey. The grey spot with a dark border will remain visible after the leaf has died and dried. Symptoms may differ in colour, size and shape of streaks and spots on different cultivars. Once infection has taken place, Black Sigatoka lesions develop quickly, and can often be seen on the second leaf of the growing plant. Soon after bunching begins, the remaining leaves are rapidly killed by the fungus, causing crop losses of up to 75%.  7 Black Sigatoka symptoms on banana leaves B. Yellow Sigatoka Initial symptoms of Yellow sigatoka appear in the form of light yellowish spots on the leaves. A small number of these enlarge, become oval; the colour also changes to dark brown. Still later, the centre of the spot dies, turning light grey surrounded by a brown ring. In severe cases, numerous spots coalesce, killing large parts of the leaf. Rainfall, dew and temperature determine the spread of the disease. Conditions favouring mass infection are most common during the rainy season with temperature above 21oC  8 Damage: All Cavendish banana cultivars (AAA genomic group) are susceptible to Yellow Sigatoka. If left uncontrolled, the disease can become very destructive in the subtropics. Coalescing leaf spots can lead to premature death of large areas of leaf tissue that eventually results in reduced yields. The Sigatoka fungus also disturbs the photosynthesis of the leaves and consequently the physiology of the fruit, resulting in premature ripening in the field or in transit to markets. Control: Several cultural control measures can be implemented to reduce the effect of Yellow Sigatoka in the subtropics. Cultural practices such as improved drainage, control of weeds, removal of diseased suckers and adopting correct spacing is recommended. Before the onset of the warm, rainy season, all affected leaves must be removed from the plant to reduce the fungal inoculum. Dithane M-45 WP (in oil-water emulsion) and Dithane M-45 (in water only) controlled Mycosphaerella fjijiensis var. difformis in banana. Foliar spray of Copper Oxychloride (3 g/litre of water) or Thiophanate Methyl 1 g/ litres of water) control the disease effectively. 2. Banana Bunchy Top Virus (BBTV): The disease is transmitted to the plant by the aphid vector Pentalonia nigronervosa and dwarf bananas are very susceptible to this disease. Primary symptoms of the disease are seen when infected suckers are planted. Such infected suckers putforth narrow leaves, which are chlorotic and exhibit mosaic symptoms. The affected leaves are britttle with their margins rolled upwards. Characteristic symptom of bunchy top virus is the presence of interrupted dark green streaks along the secondary veins of the lamina or the midrib  9 of the petiole. The diseased plants remain stunted and do not produce bunch of any commercial value. Control: Systematic eradication of the diseased plants, suckers and the clumps is very essential. Planting materials should not be collected from places affected by this disease. The aphid should be controlled to check spread of the disease by spraying with Metasystox (0.1- 0.5%). Plants adjacent to the healthy plants should also be sprayed. The affected plant should be killed with kerosene or herbicides such as 2, 4-D or 2, 4, 5-T. The rhizome should be dug out, cut into small sections and sprayed again so that no suckers can be produced which may harbour the virus. 3. Panama Wilt (Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cubense): This is a soil-borne fungal disease and gets entry in the plant body through roots. It is most serious in poorly drained soil. The fungus survives in infected soil for many years, and once introduced into a field; the field will eventually be lost to further banana production. Initial symptoms are yellowing of lower leaves, including leaf blades and petioles. The leaves hang around the pseudostem and wither. In the pseudostem of the diseased plant, yellowish to reddish streaks are noted with intensification of colour towards the rhizome. Wilt is severe in poor soil with continuous  10 cropping of banana. Warm soil temperature, poor drainage, light soils and high soil moisture are congenial for the spread of the disease. Fusarium wilt Spread: Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. Cubense is spread locally, nationally and internationally through the use of infected rhizomes/suckers, and in soil attached to planting material, implements or vehicles. From an isolated point of introduction in a disease-free plantation, the pathogen will spread slowly from plant to plant. If, however, spores are carried in surface run-off water or contaminate an irrigation reservoir, the disease can spread very rapidly, decimating a plantation within months if conditions are favorable. Control: No effective means of control exists to prevent introduction of the fungus into new fields, the only viable method is the replacement of susceptible banana varieties with resistant types. Severely affected plants should be uprooted and burnt. Highly infected soil should not be replanted with banana at least for 3-4 years. Use of disease-free planting material and resistant cultivar are recommended. Growing of paddy followed by banana for 3-5 years once or twice, use of quick lime near the base of the plant and soaking with water and avoiding sunflower or sugarcane in crop rotation helps to reduce the disease incidence. Dipping of suckers in Carbendazim (10g/10 litres of water) followed by bimonthly drenching starting from 6 months after planting is also recommended. Application of bioagents, such as, Trichoderma viride or Pseudomonas fluorescence in the soil is effective. 4. Bacterial Wilt or Moko Disease (Pseudomonas solanacearum) : The young plants are affected severely. In the initial stages the bacterial wilt is characterized by the yellowish discoloration of the inner leaf lamina close to the petiole. The leaf collapses near the junction of the lamina with the petiole. Within a week most of the leaves exhibit wilting symptoms. The  11 presence of yellow fingers in an otherwise green stem often indicates the presence of moko disease. The most characteristic symptoms appear on the young suckers that have been cut once and begin regrowth. These are blackened and stunted. The tender leaves from the suckers turn yellow and necrotic. Control : Early detection and destruction of the suspected plants may help in preventing the spread of the disease. All the tools used for pruning and cutting should be disinfected with formaldehyde. As the insects can carry the disease causing bacterium on the male flowers, removal of the male flowers as soon as the last female hand emerge help in 11inimizing the spread of the disease. The main pests of bananas are: 1. The banana weevil borer, Cosmopolites sordidus (Charançon du bananier) causes wilt-like yellowing of leaves and stunting of plant growth. The presence of tunnels in the rhizome and lower pseudostem will confirm the presence of this pest. The beetle larvae produce feeding tunnels in the pseudostem and rhizome, reducing bunch weight and causing toppling or snapping of banana plants. The banana weevil and the damage it causes  12 The larvae or grub of the weevil borer feeds by tunnelling in the banana plant. In severe cases, the tunnels extend several feet up the stem. The corm decays and becomes a mass of rotten tissue. Injury to corm prevents nourishment going to the plant. Leaves turn yellow, wither and die maturely. In heavily infected plantations, production is low. Adults feed on dead or dying banana plants and live under newly cut or rotting pseudostems. The female weevil either lays its eggs in the rotting pseudostem or moves to a living plant where eggs are inserted singly into a hole. The borers spread from plantation to plantation through planting material. Control : Plantations should be clear of debris in which borers can survive. It is most important to use clean planting material from fields, known to be free of weevils. Pieces of old rhizomes or pseudostems 1-2 feet long are cut down split and placed on the plantation floor between plants. Adult beetles migrate into these stems and can be collected by hand and poisoned. Before planting dipping of suckers in Monocrotophos (0.5%) for 30 minutes to protect rhizome from weevil attack. 2. Burrowing Nematode (Radopholus similis): The first symptom of the disease is a small dark spot on the root. The nematode deposit eggs in the root tissue. Larvae after hatching form the eggs feed on the root tissue. Fungi rapidly invade such damaged root tissue. The number of fruits in the bunch is reduced and individual fruits are small. Affected plants do not respond to fertilizers, irrigation or cultural practices. Nematode population is built up rapidly in ratoon crops. Radopholus nematode feeding on banana roots. 3. The root-knot nematode (Meloidogyne spp.) causes wilt-like symptoms of leaves of Cavendish bananas. Both the primary and secondary roots of infected bananas show galls and swellings. When the roots are cut open, necrotic lesions caused by the nematodes are presents. Root-knot nematode infections can further also result in narrow, yellow leaves, stunting, small bunches and reduced plant growth. Radopholus similis causes similar symptoms and is the cause of more severe damage on bananas in South Africa. 3.7 Research situation and breeding methods Banana is a cross-pollinated plant (allogamous) affected by several parasitic threats which cause yield losses. Chemical control of the above pests and diseases is either not practical or not effective. Chemicals are also expensive and not accessible to the small holder farmers. The  13 viable option to avoid those losses is the use of resistant varieties. The methods of improvement include: - Mass selection, - Hybridization techniques, - Use of biotechnology and Molecular Genetics Musa improvement research world-wide has initiated was early in 1920 with the advent of international trade agency in dessert banana. Despite more than 70 years of global research efforts, however no cultivar has been successively developed through cross-breeding and all commercial cultivars are clonal selections from natural landraces of farmers’ germplasm. Banana breeding started in Trinidad in 1922 and in Jamaica in 1924 but these programs are no longer active. Currently the most the most important breeding program in tropical America is that of Fundacion Hondurena de Investigation Agrocila (FHIA, Honduras). This program has continued the work started by United Fruit Company in the later 1960’s. Musa research is also currently underway in deferent in several institutions in Asia, especially in India, Philippines, Taiwan and Australia. Among the CGIAR centers, IITA (International Institute for Tropical Agriculture) has the mandate of research of plantain and banana, while the International Network for the improvement of Banana and Plantain (INIBAP) coordinate the international germplasm exchange and testing and training development countries scientists. Plantain research by IITA started 1973 and originally focused on agronomic work and germplasm collection. In 1979 the center of plantain research was transferred from Ibadan to the humid forest zone at Onne station. Agronomy, intercropping, mulching and propagation were investigated resulting in manual on plantain cultivation intended for national agricultural program and farmers. IITA started also work at Namulonge Reseach station near Kampala /Uganda aimed at developing improved germplasm and cultural practices for sustainable production of cooking/beer banana in the mid to high-altitude zone of East Africa. IITA’s field gene bank contain more than 100 cultivars of plantain (Musa spp, AAB group) collected from Nigeria, Ghana, Cote d’Ivoire,Cameroon, Gabon, Congo, Burundi and Philippines. In addition to the plantain collection another 300 musa accessions ranging from wild species to the most common export banana varieties are maintained at Onne station in Nigeria. The larger part of the field gene bank is duplicated in vitro using standard shoot-tip culture methodology. Critical issues on plant improvement are being addressed by PBIP through interdisplinary projects. These projects include breeding strategies to obtain resistance to Black Sigatoka disease and other pests, germplasm enhancement using biotechnology, improvement in postharvest quality and management and the development of sustainable production systems. Use of conventional breeding methods Crossing is generally considered the simplest strategy for the genetic improvement for most of the crops. For Musa species this strategy was little used for long period ago. Within the last  14 decades however the breeding endeavor advanced more rapidly than anticipated due to two important factors. Firstly while Musa triploids were considered to have too low level of reproductive fertility to be useful in breeding a number of female-fertility triploid plantain clones were identified in IITA field gene bank. Currently, 37 different cultivars are capable of producing true seed upon hand-pollination, the highest number of seed-fertile plantains reported. Secondly, seeds production rates at the Onne station seems higher than in the other location for banana breeding. More than 200 seed have been extracted from a single triploid banana plantain bunch when pollinated with a wild diploid banana. Initially the breeding involved production of tetraploid progenies from 3x × 2x crosses in which tetrapoids plantain female produced 2n (=3x) eggs. Diploid-plantain banana have been also recovered and later selected from the initial 3x × 2x crosses. These diploids are important to plantain breeding because they provide opportunity for germplasm enhancement at the diploid level, and simplify genetic analysis due to disomic inheritance. The genetics of black sigatoka resistance, dwarfism, apical dominance, fruit parthenocarpy, bunchy weight and other yield components in plantain were established using this diploid germplasm. The plantain-delivered diploids are being evaluated for fruit quality prior to their utilization as regular progenitors in the breeding program. Improved diploid banana germplasm has also been obtained through interspecific hybridization. So far several hundred hybrid progenies have been planted in selection fields within 5 years of breeding work. Fourteen improved tropical Musa plantain hybrids have been registered to place the improved germplasm in public domain. 3.8 Recommended agricultural practices, constraints and potential of banana production in Rwanda Currently, the area under banana production in Rwanda is about 22% and banana produces around 20% of the total energy. However, banana yield is still low. The national banana policy is to replace bananas used as row material for beer production with high yielding cooking bananas. 1. Suitable area for banana growing: Borders of Kivu Lake and eastern savanna 2. Type of soil: Banana grows and produces well on clay, humid and drained soil. 3. Available varieties for dissemination: Various varieties are widely disseminated by research institutions:  Cooking varieties: Inganji, Mbwaziruma, injagi, Mporogoma, Cyerwa  Dessert type varieties: Poyo, Gros Michel, Kamaramasenge, Fhia 17 &25. 4. Land preparation: Put in place erosion control systems, ploughing and digging holes (80 cm deep and 100 cm in diameter) to receive seedlings (suckers).The surface ground containing humus is turned over in the hole and mixed up with organic manure.  15 5. Fertilizers:  Apply 20 kgs of organic manure in each hole; add 125gr of NPK 17-17-17 or 125gr of urea before planting.  After the seedling has taken root apply manure all around the banana tree at 60 cm from the banana tree base, not in-depth so as not to damage the roots.Put manure one to two times per year during the rainy season. 6. Planting banana plants Plant1100 banana plants per Ha, respecting the spacing of 3 m between the lines and 3 m between the holes. Use banana suckers from healthy banana plantation and banana productive varieties. The suckers must have a large bulb. It should be obliquely cut on its top and have 80 cm to150 cm of height. The bulb must be carefully cleaned up, no soil or roots on it. Plant only one sucker of banana in each hole; the best period for banana planting is September and October. 7. Plantation management Important activities to manage the plantation include: mulching, removal of old leaves, removal of flowers, staking, removal of old bulbs, renewal of banana of old plantations and fighting against various pests and diseases of banana. 8. Diseases and pests Pests: a): Banana black weevil: this is a black insect called Cosmopolitans sordidus. The insect lays eggs which give whitish larvae with yellow head and grey spots, without legs. These larvae pierce the bulb of banana tree in several places; weakens the plant and, later on, the banana tree may even collapse when wind blows. Symptoms: the leaves of seriously attacked banana become yellow, shrive up and eventually dry out. Attacked banana trees are very remarkable in dry season or at flowering time. Prevention and curative measures: As soon as the first symptoms of the disease are identified, further efforts are required to ensure adequate management of the plantation. Plant healthy seedlings from healthy banana plantations; new bananas would be planted in the hole where attacked banana trees were uprooted 3 years later. Undertake the trapping of weevils using cut banana pseudo stems to trap the weevils. Collect and burn them away from the plantation. Remove the old bulbs and ensure that no new banana trees are planted in already attacked banana plantation.  16 Main diseases: A) Fusarium wilt also referred to as “Panama wilt disease” is a disease caused by a fungus called “Fusarium oxysporium”. Attacked leaves become yellow, dry out and fall. Symptoms:  Split up trunk into sections reveals grey and black rottenness inside. Means for fighting against the disease: The disease can be present in latent state in the soil for a very long period. Therefore, all attacked banana trees must be uprooted, buried, and replaced by those from resisting varieties (after at least one year), for example intuntu, intokatoki, or simply other kind of crops. Avoid planting banana trees coming from plantations attacked by the disease. B) Banana xanthomonas wilt Symptoms: Attacked banana plant leave dry out, yellowish liquid runs off the pseudo stem and the fruit gets yellow prematurely. The inside part of the banana cut is grey and the flower dries out. The disease is spread by bees, from banana plant to another, or by the farmer’s tools which are not adequately cleaned. Means for fighting against the disease The grower must cut the flower as soon as the last banana fingers have appeared. He/she will plant reliable seedlings, for example those from laboratories. He/she must heat on fire any tool used to cut attacked banana plant or part of it. C) Cladosporium: The disease is transmitted by a fungus called “Cladosporium musae”. The disease is characterized by elongated grey spots interspersing with black spots. Symptoms: Leave of the banana tree dry out. The disease is particularly severe in rainy seasons and in humid conditions. Means for fighting against the disease As prevention measure, the farmer should make sure that adequate spacing is maintained between banana plants while planting pruning, keeping only useful shoots, in order to ensure good ventilation and sunshine within the plantation. Moreover, the field shall be properly fertilized. Plant only suckers from resistant varieties.  17 9. Vegetative cycle: Banana plant can produce 12 to 17 months after planting, but some banana varieties produce 18 to 20 months. 10. Harvesting and conditioning: Cooking bananas are cut and consumed as soon as they have reached the maturity stage The output of a banana plantation is 8 to 35 tons per Ha. 11. The main constraints identified by research include: - The high incidence of panama disease and nematodes, - Low production of banana clean planting material and limited awareness among banana stakeholders, - Poor maintenance of banana plantations, - Declining soil fertility, - Insufficient number of bananas for cooking in most of the plantations.