ARD 301: Extension Teaching, Learning Process and Methods (PDF)

ARD 301: EXTENSION TEACHING VICTORKING LEARNING PROCESS AND METHODS LECTURER: C.I. Alarima (Ph.D) Importance of the Course 1. As a human being, someone else or you yourself is always trying VICTORKING to make you or someone else change his behaviour, acquire ne...

ARD 301: EXTENSION TEACHING VICTORKING LEARNING PROCESS AND METHODS LECTURER: C.I. Alarima (Ph.D) Importance of the Course 1. As a human being, someone else or you yourself is always trying VICTORKING to make you or someone else change his behaviour, acquire new information, knowledge, skills or attitude. This is a life-long process. This process entails teaching and learning. As a change agent, development or extension agent or agricultural officer, you shall be involved in this process  Outline of Today’s Class VICTORKING Definition of Learning Elements of Learning Kinds of Learning Principles of Learning Simple Learning Process 3 Definitions of Learning Learning is a fascinating and interesting topic. There are different (psychologists) schools of thought about the details VICTORKING of learning process. However, they accept the basic premise that: LEARNING occurs whenever someone adopts new or modifies existing behaviour patterns in a way which has some influence on future performance or attitudes. Unless, and in fact, there is some influence, we would not be able to detect that learning had taken place.  VICTORKING Definitions of Learning Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavioural potentiality that occurs as a result of reinforced practice. Aspects or Elements of Learning VICTORKING a. A Change in behaviour, knowledge, skills or attitude b. The change is not temporary but a relatively permanent one c. Occurs due to experience d. May not be directly observable but it is inferable Kinds of Learning 1. Motor VICTORKING 2. Affective 3. Verbal or 4. Cognitive Others are habit, social, trial and error, observational, insightful learning, etc.  General Principles of Learning 1. Learning involves experiencing, doing, reacting, or undergoing VICTORKING 2. In learning, responses are modified by their consequences 3. Learning initiated by need and purpose would be energetically pursued 4. It is affected by individual differences 5. Individuals learn better when the experiences, goals, and materials are adjusted to the maturational level of the learner General Principles of Learning (contd) 6. Individuals learn better when satisfying result follow learning VICTORKING episodes 7. Repetition is an essential strategy in learning 8. Both positive and negative reinforcement accelerates learning when skillfully, consistently and contingently used 9. A motivated learner learns faster and better (than unmotivated learner) General Principles of Learning (contd) VICTORKING 10. Learners with adequate learning readiness learn faster and better. 11. Learning must make use of all five senses (not necessarily at the same time) 12. Learning environment must be conducive 13. Learning process must be progressive, continuous and systematic  The Simple Learning Process VICTORKING Learning involves: AWARENESS NEED ACTION SATISFACTION  I want to thank you for Listening. VICTORKING I will be back with you 30 minutes before the end of the class to take your questions and comments. Before then, Enjoy yourself  NG safe ORKIstay VICTPlease Covid-19 Is Real!!! VICTORKING 14  VICTORKING Virtual Teaching Training Training for Academic Staff DR. OLUWASEUN ADETARAMI 1 COURSE CODE ARD 301 COURSE TITLE: EXTENSION VI CT OR KI NG TEACHING, LEARNING PROCESS AND METHODS. FIRST SEMESTER FOR 2019/2020 SESSION TEACHING- ELEMENTS/ COMPONENTS OF THE TEACHING PROCESS The elements are presented as; 1) The farmer (the learner) 2) The environment VICTORKING 3) The subject matter to be learnt 4) The extension officer (the teacher) 5) The physical facilities 1.Learners: Persons who want and need to learn are the learners. In an effective learning situation, learners occupy the most important central position and all efforts are directed towards them. VICTORKING Learners should: 1) Be capable of learning, 2) Have interest in the subject, have need for the information offered, and 3) Be able to use the information once it is gained. In the present context, the farmers, farm women and rural youth comprise the learners. 2. Teachers: They are the extension agents who impart training and motivate the learners. They not only know what to teach, but also know how to teach. The teachers should: VICTORKING (a) Have clear-cut and purposeful teaching objectives, (b) Know the subject matter and have it well organized, (c) Be enthusiastic and interested about the learners and the subject matter, (d) Be able to communicate and skillful in using teaching aids, and (e) Be able to encourage participation of the people. 3. Subject Matter: It is the content or topic of teaching that is useful to the learners. The subject matter should be: VICTORKING (a) Pertinent to learners’ needs, (b) Applicable to their real life situations, (c) Well organized and presented logically and clearly, (d) Consistent with the overall objectives, and (e) Challenging, satisfying and significant to the learners. 4. Teaching Materials: These are appropriate instructional materials, equipment’s and aids. The teaching materials should be: VICTORKING (a) Suitable to the subject matter and physical situation, (b) Adequate in quantity and available in time, and (c) Skillfully used. 5. Physical Facilities: It means appropriate physical environment in which teaching- learning can take place. The physical facilities should be: VICTORKING (a) Compatible with the objective, (b) Representative of the area and situation, and (c) Adequate and easily accessible.  METHODS OF TEACHING There are varieties of teaching methods which can be used include among others: 1) Demonstration method, VICTORKING 2) Discussion Method, 3) Problem Solving Method/ Discovery, and 4) Field trip. Demonstration method: It is possible for farmers to learn how to perform manipulation operations by being told how to do them. However, they can learn and more effectively too, when they are shown how the job is done. VICTORKING Three types of demonstrations can be identified: a) Method demonstration b) Result demonstration c) Laboratory method  Discussion Method: This is one of the most effective ways of stimulating the learning process. It involves group interaction in which an individual expresses him or herself; listens to opinion of others, thus forming VICTORKING the best ideas and judgments. The extension officers as a leader, directs or redirects ideas and information produced by the farmers on the field. Problem Solving Method/ Discovery. A problem is a life situation which creates difficulty, a state of suspense, confusion, perplexity, uneasiness or doubt. It requires VICTORKING thinking out of the solution and not just finding out of the facts about situation. Farming programmes and other agricultural programmes are excellent sources of problems. Problem solving acts as an effective means of developing and securing desirable learning. It affords the farmers an opportunity to acquire attitude conducive to the solution of future problems. Field trip: This is a planned visit to places outside the regular learning environment to obtain information directly and study real situations. VICTORKING There are three parts in the field trip; 1) A discussion period for planning the trip, 2) The trip itself, and 3) A discussion after the trip.  Variety of teaching methods can also be classified into three broad categories based on the number of individuals reached simultaneously with specific messages (THE METHODOLOGY). These methods are: VI CT OR KI NG Individual contact extension methods: Individual contact extension methods allow extension worker and the farmer to interact on one-on-one, face –to-face basis. They are farm visit, home visit, office calls and inquiry, informal contact, model farm and field flag. Group contact methods: Group contact methods involve face-to-face interaction between the extension worker and a group of farmers/clientele at the same time and place. This is mostly employed when and where time and staff at the disposal of the extension worker are limited, and when clientele or farmers are to be persuaded to try new farm practices. Group contact methods such as method demonstration, general meeting, lectures, group discussion, seminars, workshops, excursions, farmers field schools. Mass media methods: Mass media methods are used to reach many people at a time with the same message. These methods are particularly useful in making large numbers of people aware of new ideas and VICTORKING practices, or alerting them of sudden emergencies such as information about Avian flu causes, prevention and control. Mass media methods such as leaflets, bulletins, circulars, radio, television, cinema, poster, flip chart, motion picture. PREPARATION AND USE OF TEACHING MATERIAL AND AIDS Definition: Instructional materials are devices which an extension agent or teacher utilizes in teaching so as to assist pupils or farmers to understand the lesson. The importance of instructional materials include: VICTORKING i) Helps to supplement the personality of the extension instructor; ii) Add zest, interest and vitality to training and learning process; iii) Bring about better understanding of the subject matter; iv) Provide worthwhile experiences for learners; v) Provide greater acquisition and longer retention of knowledge; vi) Use of aids reduces classroom boredom; and vii) They stimulate and sustain students/learners interest Classification of instructional Materials The teaching aids come under two major categories namely: Projected and non- projected instructional materials. i.Projected instructional Materials – These are materials that require the assistance of power supply like electricity to VICTORKING operate them. Examples include: overhead projectors, films, strip projectors, television and radio. They are usually effective if care is taken to select appropriate equipment and when they are skillfully handed. ii.Non-projected instructional materials – These refer to instructional materials that can be used without the aid of power supply. That is, they include all aids which are seen or utilized without the help of projectors. These include flip charts, graphs, flannel board, chalk boards, pictures, models or real objects. They are generally easy to produce improvised and used by teacher or instructional technologists. Photographs and small objects may be projected with an opaque projector, but this method is currently less commonly used. Classification of Instructional Materials based on the Sense organ Instructional materials may also be classified based on the sense organ they appeal to. This classification model places all VICTORKING instructional materials under three categories names: i) Visual aids ii) Audio aids iii) Audio-visual aids. i) Visual Aids – They are instructional materials which facilitate learning by appealing to students’ sense of sight. They bring about effectiveness in the teaching of agricultural extension or science more especially as they enhance retention of facts by learners or farmers. They exemplify the truth of one Chinese proverb that says: What I hear, I forget, What I see, I remember, What I do, I VICTORKING understand. Visual aids are of two categories namely: (a) Real Objects and (b) Representational visual Aids a) Real Objects – These include specimen and real objects like cutlass, hoe, animal feed, fertilizer, farm machinery, plant, animal and so on. b) Representational Visual aids – These are instructional materials which are of the symbolic of the real objects or specimens. They include diagrams, photographs, bulletin, boards, chalkboards, pictures, charts, graphs and flannels boards. ii) Audio Aids – These are instructional materials, which facilitate learning to appealing to learners’ sense of hearing. Examples of these are radio and record players. Agric extension teachers may play cassette tapes in which VICTORKING educational programmes have been recorded or ask pupils to listen to radio broadcast on a variety of topic in agricultural extension or agricultural science. iii) Audio-Visual Aids – These are instructional materials which appeal to students’ sense of learning and seeing at the same time. Examples include video tapes, television and motion pictures. They are better than audio and visual aids because they appeal to more sense organs than either. They are especially useful and recommended in agricultural extension work. THANK YOU FOR LISTENING VICTORKING  VICTORKING From Lecture Hall to Virtual Classroom 22 VICTORKING 23 ARD301: Extension Teaching, VICTORKING Learning Process and Methods  Nature and elements of communication process VICTORKING Extension education is essentially a process of communication (i.e. the passing of ideas, knowledge and skills between and among people). It includes the transfer of technical information from its source to the farmer or client, but it is more than this. Technical knowledge to farmers or other clients is of no use unless and until it is accepted as authentic, is adapted to the needs of the farmers or clients and eventually put into use by them in their various activities.  Communication can therefore be said to VICTORKING be a conscious attempt to share information and ideas with others. Invariably the success of an extension agent is determined to a large extent by his or her ability to communicate good and tangible ideas to others. Characteristics of communication in extension Communication in extension is a two-way VICTORKING process. It will not be complete if it is one way. It must communicate ideas. The extension agent must collect facts related to the subject, which are accurate, clear and appropriate.  Communication must be organized. The VICTORKING materials to be presented should be carefully arranged so as to be cohesive and the facts to be presented should be done logically and sequentially. Receivers must cooperate in the communication process It is important to use the correct words and conform to the local customs of the people. The communicator must necessarily VICTORKING assume some responsibilities by highlighting unintended consequences of the message that is passed to the clients and educate them about such consequences.  Major elements in communication VICTORKING The SMCRE model is such that an idea is changed into a message made up of several physical elements (Such as words) with a symbolic meaning (i.e. the idea must be encoded into symbols to which meaning is attached). The source or sender passes the message through a channel to a receiver. The receiver decodes the message (i.e. attaches meaning to the symbols) and develops an idea in his mind which he may or may not use (the effect of the communication). The source observes this effect and uses it to evaluate the impact of his message (feedback). Source Encoding Message Channel Receiver Decoding Effect VICTORKING Feedback  Encoding Transmitted Receiver Message on medium decodes VICTORKING Noise Receiver Sender creates meaning Source Transmitted decodes on medium Message Encoding A perceptual Model of Communication 1. Source or sender: This is the communicator VICTORKING and he/she initiates the communication process by sending messages. The credibility of the communicator will determine the attitude of people towards him or her. The credibility depends on the extent to which he/she is perceived as a source of valid assertion and the trust people have in him. A good communicator should possess the following characteristics: – Must know his/her audience, their wants VICTORKING and needs, the effective channels of communication applicable to them. – Must be interested in his/her audience and their welfare – Prepares his communications carefully using VICTORKING appropriate materials and devices to get the interest of is audience and adequately pass the message – Speaks clearly and use terms that are easily understood by the people Encoding: Communication begins when a VICTORKING sender encodes an idea or thought and it involves translating mental thoughts into code or language that can be understood by others Message: This is the information a VICTORKING communicator wants his/her audience to receive, understand, accept and eventually act upon. It is the output of encoding The message should have some of these characteristics  The message must be in line with the VICTORKING needs and interest of the group receiving the information It should be clear, valid, factual, accurate and timely Channels or extension methods: These are VICTORKING the various methods available to any communicator or extension agent to reach an audience with a message. Furthermore, extension education is more VICTORKING effective when a combination of two or more forms are used because it provides an opportunity to impart knowledge, make it more appealing and increase motivation of the audience. There are a number of factors to be VICTORKING considered when choosing a medium to use for information dissemination. These are: The nature of the message the intended purpose of the message the type of audience you are dealing with proximity to the audience time frame for disseminating the message the personal preference of the message sender Extension methods are usually classified into three: VICTORKING – Individual contact methods such as farm and home visits, office calls, telephone calls, correspondence – Group contact methods such as method demonstration, general meeting, lectures, group discussion, seminars, workshops, excursions, farmers field schools Mass media methods such as leaflets, VICTORKING bulletins, circulars, radio, television, cinema  Messages in extension can also be VICTORKING classified as: audio (office calls, telephone calls, radio) visual (posters, leaflets, exhibits) audio-visuals (television, video, CD, DVD, cinemas, multi-media projectors). Receiver or audience or listener: This is the individual that the message is intended for. The receiver should always know exactly what the objectives of the messages are; understand VICTORKING the messages and what he/she is to do about them. It is necessary that the receiver be accepted by the communicator as he is. The receiver can be motivated towards fulfilling the objectives when the communicator knows the receiver’s state of knowledge and helps him achieve the objectives Decoding: This is the receiver’s version of VICTORKING encoding. It entails translating verbal, oral or visual aspects of a message into a form that can be interpreted Effect: This is the expected outcome of the communication process. The message is intended to result in a decision by the farmers to at least try out the VICTORKING idea or recommended practice. If no change occurs in the knowledge, attitude or behaviour of the client then effective communication cannot be said to have taken place. Feedback: This is the receiver’s response to a message. At this stage the sender VICTORKING becomes the receiver and the receiver becomes the sender. Specifically, the receiver encodes a response and then transmits it to the original sender. Feedback gives the original sender of the message an idea of how accurately their message has been understood. Noise: This is anything that interferes with VICTORKING the transmission and understanding of a message. It affects all linkages of the communication process. In conclusion, the ability to communicate effectively is therefore important in extension work. VICTORKING Principles of analysing communication VICTORKING problems in extension The aim of any communication or learning VICTORKING process in extension is the passing of information to bring positive changes in the activities of the client. An important way of determining or detecting a problem in the communication process is from the reaction of the receivers in the communication process Communication problems may arise as a result of a number of reasons such as not VICTORKING using the right channels or medium of information dissemination, lack of interest in the message or if the message does not meet the interest and needs of the clients, if there is no favorable reaction to the message and not having a conducive environment amongst others There are four key barriers to effective communication Process barriers VICTORKING Personal barriers Physical barriers semantic barriers. Process barriers Every element in the communication VICTORKING process is a potential process barrier Personal barriers This include: VI CT OR KI NG ability to communicate effectively the way people process information interpersonal trust between people. Physical barriers The physical environment in which the VICTORKING communication is taking place. Semantic barriers Semantics is the study of words VICTORKING Semantic barriers show up as encoding and decoding errors because these phases of communication involve transmitting and receiving words and symbols. Barriers in Agricultural Communication Feed-forward problems: This implies the VI CT OR KI NG information about the receiver which the source has prior to initiating communication Homophily versus heterophily: Homophily refers to the degree to which a source-receiver pair are similar in certain attributes. Heterophily is the degree to which a source and receiver pair are different in human attributes Barriers in Agricultural Communication Noise: Any disturbance which interferes with the VI CT OR KI NG effectiveness of the communication process Waning attention: This is when a persons attention waver due to certain circumstances or unmet needs Barriers in Agricultural Communication Shortage of physical and material inputs: The VI CT OR KI NG farmer may not have enough capital or labour to practice an idea Cognitive dissonance: This is knowledge that is incompatible with a person’s interests, attitudes and beliefs Barriers in Agricultural Communication Information selectivity: This is the tendency to VICTORKING seek familiarity and reinforcement for communication messages that tend to agree with ones existing belief and attitudes and avoiding those that are not Incorrect message content: The sender will loose credibility if information disseminated is found to be incorrect Barriers in Agricultural Communication Information overload and information fatigue VICTORKING Feedback problem: If there is no feedback, there may be misunderstanding and the communication becomes distorted Some important ways of overcoming these VICTORKING problems include:  The sender should try as much as possible to avoid passing unintended VICTORKING non-verbal messages that can easily distract his or her audience during interpersonal contact Messages must be relevant to the needs and aspirations of the client  Appropriate channels of information should be used and different VICTORKING combinations should be considered The extension agent should take into consideration individual differences among the client in terms of their learning abilities, skills and previous knowledge  Discussions should be supplemented with VICTORKING illustrations and personal experience of the clients The physical environment should be made conducive for learning COURSE CODE ARD 301 COURSE TITLE: EXTENSION TEACHING, LEARNING PROCESS AND METHODS FIRST SEMESTER FOR 2019/2020 SESSION TEACHING- ELEMENTS/ COMPONENTS OF THE TEACHING PROCESS Teaching and learning are two separate episodes which often times take place together. In any typical teaching-learning situation the following elements are present: (1) The farmer (the learner) (2) The environment (3) The subject matter to be learnt (4) The extension officer (the teacher) (5) The physical facilities VICTORKING 1. Learners: Persons who want and need to learn are the learners. In an effective learning situation, learners occupy the most important central position and all efforts are directed towards them. Learners should: (i) Be capable of learning, (ii) Have interest in the subject, have need for the information offered, and (iii) Be able to use the information once it is gained. In the present context, the farmers, farm women and rural youth comprise the learners. 2. Teachers: They are the extension agents who impart training and motivate the learners. They not only know what to teach, but also know how to teach. The teachers should: (a) Have clear-cut and purposeful teaching objectives, (b) Know the subject matter and have it well organized, (c) Be enthusiastic and interested about the learners and the subject matter, (d) Be able to communicate and skillful in using teaching aids, and (e) Be able to encourage participation of the people. 3. Subject Matter: It is the content or topic of teaching that is useful to the learners. The subject matter should be: (a) Pertinent to learners’ needs, (b) Applicable to their real life situations, (c) Well organized and presented logically and clearly, (d) Consistent with the overall objectives, and (e) Challenging, satisfying and significant to the learners. 4. Teaching Materials: These are appropriate instructional materials, equipment’s and aids. The teaching materials should be: (a) Suitable to the subject matter and physical situation, (b) Adequate in quantity and available in time, and (c) Skillfully used. 5. Physical Facilities: It means appropriate physical environment in which teaching- learning can take place. VICTORKING The physical facilities should be: (a) Compatible with the objective, (b) Representative of the area and situation, and (c) Adequate and easily accessible. The extension officer is at a level different from that of the farmer. The farmer (learner) needs to go through series of experiences (planned and unplanned) in order to attain a level which he or she consider desirable (goals) in achieving these desirable goals, the learner makes use of the resources within his/her environment and in so doing experiences and makes use of resources within his/her environment in directing the learner to achieve his or her goals. METHODS OF TEACHING There are varieties of teaching methods which can be used include among others: 1) Demonstration method: It is possible for farmers to learn how to perform manipulation operations by being told how to do them. However, they can learn and more effectively too, when they are shown how the job is done. Three types of demonstrations can be identified: (a) Method demonstration (b) Result demonstration (c) Laboratory method Method demonstration is designed to show the sequential steps to be followed in carrying out a given operation e.g fertilizer application. Result demonstration, on the other hand, is meant to show the reaction that takes place under control conditions in an experiment or the effect of adoption of certain improved method, practice or innovation in an agricultural production. In other words, result demonstration is used to prove the veracity of an agricultural production. Lastly, laboratory methods involve experiments. 2) Discussion Method: This is one of the most effective ways of stimulating the learning process. It involves group interaction in which an individual expresses him or herself; listens to opinion of others, thus forming the best ideas and judgments. The extension officers as a leader, directs or redirects ideas and information produced by the farmers on the field. 3) Problem Solving Method/ Discovery. A problem is a life situation which creates difficulty, a state of suspense, confusion, perplexity, uneasiness or doubt. It requires thinking out of the solution and not just finding out of the facts about situation. Farming VICTORKING programmes and other agricultural programmes are excellent sources of problems. Problem solving acts as an effective means of developing and securing desirable learning. It affords the farmers an opportunity to acquire attitude conducive to the solution of future problems. 4) Field trip: This is a planned visit to places outside the regular learning environment to obtain information directly and study real situations. There are three parts in the field trip; (a) A discussion period for planning the trip (b) The trip itself (c) A discussion after the trip Variety of teaching methods can also be classified into three broad categories based on the number of individuals reached simultaneously with specific messages. These methods are: i) Individual contact extension methods: Individual contact extension methods allow extension worker and the farmer to interact on one-on-one, face –to-face basis. They are farm visit, home visit, office calls and inquiry, informal contact, model farm and field flag. ii) Group contact methods: Group contact methods involve face-to-face interaction between the extension worker and a group of farmers/clientele at the same time and place. This is mostly employed when and where time and staff at the disposal of the extension worker are limited, and when clientele or farmers are to be persuaded to try new farm practices. Group contact methods such as method demonstration, general  meeting, lectures, group discussion, seminars, workshops, excursions, farmers field schools. iii) Mass media methods: Mass media methods are used to reach many people at a time with the same message. These methods are particularly useful in making large numbers of people aware of new ideas and practices, or alerting them of sudden emergencies such as information about Avian flu causes, prevention and control. Mass media methods such as leaflets, bulletins, circulars, radio, television, cinema, poster, flip chart, motion picture. PREPARATION AND USE OF TEACHING MATERIAL AND AIDS Instructional materials that will be used to facilitate teaching and learning in Agricultural Extension should be suitable for the subject matter and physical situation. They should also be considerate and ensure that all necessary materials are available and in good working conditions and skillfully handled at all times. In this unit we are going to learn the concept VICTORKING and importance of instructional materials or teaching aids in agricultural extension. Definition: Instructional materials are devices which an extension agent or teacher utilizes in teaching so as to assist pupils or farmers to understand the lesson. The importance of instructional materials include: i) Helps to supplement the personality of the extension instructor; ii) Add zest, interest and vitality to training and learning process; iii) Bring about better understanding of the subject matter; iv) Provide worthwhile experiences for learners iv) Provide greater acquisition and longer retention of knowledge; v) Use of aids reduces classroom boredom; vi) They stimulate and sustain students/learners interest. Characteristics of good instructional materials include: i) Simplicity ii) Colourfulness iii) Portability iv) Flexibility and v) Visibility Classification of instructional Materials The teaching aids come under two major categories namely: Projected and non-projected instructional materials. i.Projected instructional Materials – These are materials that require the assistance of power supply like electricity to operate them. Examples include: overhead projectors, films, strip projectors, television and radio. They are usually effective if care is taken to select appropriate equipment and when they are skillfully handed. ii.Non-projected instructional materials – These refer to instructional materials that can be used without the aid of power supply. That is, they include all aids which are seen or utilized without the help of projectors. These include flip charts, graphs, flannel board, chalk boards, pictures, models or real objects. They are generally easy to produce improvised and used by teacher or instructional technologists. Photographs and small objects may be projected with an opaque projector, but this method is currently less commonly used. Classification of Instructional Materials based on the Sense organ VICTORKING Instructional materials may also be classified based on the sense organ they appeal to. This classification model places all instructional materials under three categories names: (i) Visual aids (ii) Audio aids (iii) Audio-visual aids. i) Visual Aids – They are instructional materials which facilitate learning by appealing to students’ sense of sight. They bring about effectiveness in the teaching of agricultural extension or science more especially as they enhance retention of facts by learners or farmers. They exemplify the truth of one Chinese proverb that says: What I hear, I forget, What I see, I remember, What I do, I understand. Visual aids are of two categories namely: (a) Real Objects and (b) Representational visual Aids a) Real Objects – These include specimen and real objects like cutlass, hoe, animal feed, fertilizer, farm machinery, plant, animal and so on. b) Representational Visual aids – These are instructional materials which are of the symbolic of the real objects or specimens. They include diagrams, photographs, bulletin, boards, chalkboards, pictures, charts, graphs and flannels boards. ii) Audio Aids – These are instructional materials, which facilitate learning to appealing to learners’ sense of hearing. Examples of these are radio and record players. Agric extension teachers may play cassette tapes in which educational programmes have been recorded or ask pupils to listen to radio broadcast on a variety of topic in agricultural extension or agricultural science. iii) Audio-Visual Aids – These are instructional materials which appeal to students’ sense of learning and seeing at the same time. Examples include video tapes, television and motion pictures. They are better than audio and visual aids because they appeal to more sense organs than either. They are especially useful and recommended in agricultural extension work. VICTORKING  Anticipate VICTORKING TEAM SYNERGY  COURSE CODE: ARD 301 COURSE TITLE:EXTENSION TEACHING, LEARNING PROCESS AND METHODS VICTORKING DR. OLUWATOSIN ADEYEYE 1  Topics Thorndike’s Law of Learning and Principles of Learning VICTORKING  INTRODUCTION ▪ Edward Lee Thorndike was an education psychologist from America, he was born in Williamsburg on August 31, 1874 and died in VICTORKING Montrose, New York on August 10, 1949. ▪ Thorndike developed series of laws about trial and error learning. He propounded first three (3) basic laws of learning, in addition, five subordinate laws of learning which further explained the learning procedure/ processes were also propounded Thorndike’s first three basic and the subordinate laws are : Law of Readiness VICTORKING Law of Exercise Law of Effect Law of Multiple Response The Law of Associative Shifting Pre-potency of Elements Law of Response by Analogy The Law of Set or Attitude  Law of Readiness or Law of Action This is the first primary law of learning, readiness means preparation for an action. This implies that learning cannot be automatically instilled in an VI CT OR KI NG individual if such person is not prepared to learnt. Therefore, law of readiness emphasizes that learning takes place when an action tendency is aroused through preparatory adjustment or attitude. For instance, a 300 Level Candidate offering ARD 301 could have a score of 98% if he/she determines to study very hard.  Law of Exercise It is also referred to as law of use and disuse, the law indicates that practice helps in increasing learning efficiency and durability. VICTORKING The law of exercise establishes that trials and practices are strengthened when there are connection but the reverse is the case when trials and connections are disconnected/ weakened. For instance, a Candidate targeting to be overall best student in 500 Level need to constantly and repeatedly read understand and assimilate all the courses offered from 100Level to 500 Level. In all, the law affirms that practice makes perfect  Law of Effect This law indicates that a satisfying response to a subject would be learnt and selected while reference(s) would not be made to unsatisfying VICTORKING response(s). Hence, the greater the satisfaction, the stronger the motive to learn. For example, a condusive environment and emotional stability are needed for optimal academic performance of students Therefore, it should be noted that intensity is an important cindition of law of effect  Law of Multiple Responses This law makes use of different opportunities/ ways /options of arriving at a solution, that is, an individual will continually change his/her responses in order to have a definite behaviour. In order words, a particular VI CT OR KI NG behaviour is dependent on various changes associated with an individual responses. For instance, Thorndike’s used a puzzle box and cat for an experiment. A cat was put in a puzzle box and the cat tried all avenue to escape or move out of the box but could not until her paw hit the box latch and the door eventually opened. Therefore, it could be concluded that practice is the main feature of trial and error  The Law of Associative Shifting The law indicates that response is obtained from a learner with other situation to which he /she is sensitive. For instance, an individual can emerge as VICTORKING the overall best student if he/she constantly attending classes and paying rapt attention to the lectures, studying at all times and favourably respond to the class test. Pre-potency of Elements: This law emphasizes that the learner reacts selectively to the important or essential in the situation and neglects the other features which may be irrelevant or non-essential  Law of Response by Analogy This law stipulates that an individual makes use of old experiences or acquisitions while leaving VICTORKING a new situation. A Candidate who chooses to study Animal Production and Health as a course in a FUNAAB and decides to become a livestock farmer after graduation might be interested in such career based on the experience and skills acquired during Farm Practical Year (FPY) as well as during the final year project ( practical aspect.  The Law of Set or Attitude Learning is guided by a total set or attitude of an individual. In this situation, attitude does not only determines what an individual will do, but VICTORKING what will satisfy or annoy him. For example, a student aiming at becoming first in the class would have set a target for himself/herself. In order to achieve that the behaviour/ attitude should focus on acquiring more knowledge than his/her colleague. This could only be achieved if more precious time is allocated to his/her study  Principles of Learning Transfer of learning occur because of previously encountered situation VICTORKING Learning requires both practice and rewards and that could be related to law of effect and /or law of exercise Intelligence is a function of the number of connections learned A series of S-R ( Stimulus – Response ) connections can be a achieved together if they belong to the same action sequence. The connection between stimulus and response is called Stimulus-Respond bond or S-R bond  Intelligence is a function of the number of connections learned VICTORKING  Topic Factors Affecting Learning VICTORKING  INTRODUCTION Learning is being affected by series of factors which include; Psychological, Intellectual, Environment, VICTORKING Learning, Emotional and Social. Psychological Factor : These are factors that inhibits an individual intellectual causing difficulty in proper learning as well as assimilation. There are different issues that make up the psychological factors.  These factors include an individual’s health, physical development, nutrition, visual and physical defects, attitude and glandular abnormality. VICTORKING It is generally recognized that ill health retards physical and motor development, and malnutrition interferes with learning and physical growth. Furthermore, attitude are very important in the development of personality. Attitudes has a stimulating effect upon the rate of learning of an individual  An individual attitude include but not limited to the following; interest, cheerfulness, affection, prejudice, open-mindedness, and loyalty. VICTORKING The score/ grade of a student is influenced by the mental disposition of such candidate / learner because, a favorable mental attitude facilitates learning. Hence, the factor of interest is very closely related in nature to that of symbolic drive and reward.  Intellectual Factor The term refers to the individual mental level, that is the level of assimilation, ability to retain and remember what has been learnt. VICTORKING It is believed that an individual possess different kinds to intelligence. Therefore, knowledge of an individual’s nature of intelligence should be a guiding principle to help students  It is also believed that students with low intelligence often encounter serious difficulty in understanding some lectures. For instance, a low score in one subject and high score in another VICTORKING subject indicate the possible presence of a special deficiency. The native capacity of the individual is of prime importance in determining the effectiveness of the, learning process. Therefore, the native capacity of an individual is of prime importance in determining the effectiveness of the learning process.  Environmental Factor One of the environment factor which affect learning efficiency is the physical condition. This include the condition where learning is taking place. That is, VI CT OR KI NG whether the environment is conducive for learning or not. For instance, a learner cannot assimilates and /or concentrates in an unfriendly a atmospheric condition such as intense heat or power failure. Others include unkept lecture rooms, unavailability of basic laboratory equipments for conducting practicals and so on.  Learning Factor The inability or failure of a student to a understand and have the knowledge (mastery) of what has been taught in the class due to faulty VICTORKING methods or lack of interest in a particular course. For instance, lack of interest in mathematics could hinder a candidate academic progression especially if such candidate is offering a course that is related to mathematics or has to do with calculation.  Emotional and Social Factors Emotional state could be good or bad depending on the situation, example of a bad emotional state is a VICTORKING situation where a student dislikes a particular subject probably due to the various ways the lesson/ lecture is being taught/ handle by the teacher. If this type of attitude is not corrected by such student, he/she may end up having low score/ grade in such subject or may eventually fail the subject due to the personal factor which has negative influence on the emotion.  Personal factors, such as instincts and emotions, and social factors, such as cooperation and rivalry, are directly related to a complex VICTORKING psychology of motivation. It is a recognized fact that the various responses of the individual to various kinds of stimuli are determined by a wide variety of tendencies. Conclusively, positive emotion and /or attitude enhances learning capability.  COURSE CODE: ARD 301 COURSE TITLE:EXTENSION TEACHING, LEARNING PROCESS AND METHODS VICTORKING DR. OLUWATOSIN ADEYEYE 1  Topic Nature, Element and Problems ORKING VICTExtension of Communication Process in  Sub-Topics Definition of communication VICTORKING What is effective communication Elements of communication process in extension Problems of communication process in extension  Introduction Increase in agricultural production and livelihood sustainability in agrarian VICTORKING communities cannot be enhanced without effective communication between researchers, extension agents and farmers. Therefore, in any organization, communication is very important.  Communication Communication is derived from Latin word “communis”. According to Leagans (1961), communication is the process by VICTORKING which two or more people exchange ideas, facts, feelings or impression in such a way that each gains a common understanding of the meaning , intent and the use of message  Communication could also be defined as the process, an act of imparting or exchange of information by speaking, writing or using other media of VICTORKING information dissemination such as posters, handbills, phones, billboards and so on. It is also an act of information transfer from one place to another and between group of persons  Communication can be categorized as ; verbal, non-verbal, written and visualizations. VICTORKING Verbal/Spoken communication: This include face-to face, telephone, radio and other media of communication Non-verbal: It include voice tone, hand signals, body language and gestures Written communication: This include the use of letters, e-mails, social media,  books, magazines, internet and so on. Visualization: It include among others, VICTORKING the use of letter, magazines, internet and so on.  Effective Communication Effective communication involves minimizing potentials misunderstanding VICTORKING and overcoming any barriers to communication at each stage in the communication process. Effective communication can often be affected by media/medium through which the message is/are sent, the cultural situation, an individual emotion and the location.  Communication Process Hence, communication process involves understanding the meaning and sharing VICTORKING of an information. Communication process consists of eight (8) major elements The elements are the following: Sender/communicator Message  Channels Receiver/ Audience Decoding VICTORKING Feedback Noise Encoding  Explanation of the Elements of Communication In extension and rural development, sender/ communicator in this situation is VICTORKING the extension agent who is the subject matter specialist (SMS).His/Her area of interest could be improved crop science and livestock technology that are being practiced. The sender in this case would harvest information from researchers and disseminate such to farmers as the need  Message: The message is referred to as the technology to be disseminated to farmers. This is mainly the information that is related to a particular farmer at a VICTORKING point in time. For instance, information on new hybrid maize are meant to be disseminated to crop farmers Channels: This is a medium/media through which information flows from a sender to one or more receiver. This could be face-to-face, verbal/oral communication Receiver/ Audience : This is the target VICTORKING in communication and they are grouped according to their interests, needs, resources, farm sizes and number. They can often be referred to as small, medium or large scale farmers.  Decoding: The receiver /audience, in this situation receives the message from the sender and also interpret and understand VICTORKING the message. Feedback: This is the process of ensuring that the receiver has received the message and understood it the same way as meant by the communicator. The communication process gets to its final stage when the message has been successfully transmitted, received and understood, then the receiver/ audience responds to the sender, indicating comprehension. Feedback could be VICTORKING direct ( written/ verbal) or indirect Noise: It is defined as any sort of interference that affects the message sent, received or understood  Encoding : This involves conversion of a subject matter , that is theoretical and intangible into symbols such as words , actions. Non-verbal communication VICTORKING such as eye contact, respectful voice tone, gentle touch and so on can be used to encode an individual action.  Hence, encoding is the process of turning thought into communication. The encoder uses a medium which could VICTORKING be e-mail, text messages, face-to-face communication and phone call The problems of communication process in extension include ; attitude, listening skills, cultural differences, lack of motivation, written communication skills, appropriate communication tools and oversharing.  ARD 301: EXTENSION TEACHING VICTORKING LEARNING PROCESS AND METHODS LECTURER: C.I. Alarima (Ph.D)  Last Class VICTORKING Definition of Learning Elements of Learning Kinds of Learning Principles of Learning Simple Learning Process 2  Outline of Today’s Class VICTORKING LEARNING THEORIES Groups of learning theories Stimulus-Response (S-R) Cognitive or Field Cognition Theories 3 APPLICATIONS OF LEARNING THEORIES IN VICTORKING AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT This section aims at introducing students to a variety of learning and teaching theories, principles, and VI CTORKING concepts; and HOW the knowledge acquired could be used (applied and put into practice) in agricultural extension and rural development services. Below are some introductory learning theories and principles. The class will interact and discuss their applications.  INTRODUCTION TO LEARNING THEORIES There are 2 groups of learning theories: VICTORKING Stimulus-Response (S-R) or Connectionism or Contiguity or Behaviourist Theories. Cognitive or Field Cognition Theories. S-R treats learning as a matter of links between stimulus and response (S-R). The belief is that the learner develops certain responses to VICTORKING given stimuli. However, Cognitive theories and theorists place greater emphasis on the functioning of the brain (internal processes including perception and attitudes) and cognitive structures which man might acquire from experience and which modify his present behaviour. 7 Stimulus-Response (S-R) Stimulus-response (S-R) theories are central to the principles of VICTORKING conditioning. They are based on the assumption that human behaviour is learned. Conditioning is a form of learning in which either (1) a given stimulus (or signal) becomes increasingly effective in evoking a response or (2) a response occurs with increasing regularity in a well-specified and stable environment. One of the early contributors to the field, American psychologist Edward L. Thorndike 8  THORNDIKE LAWS OF LEARNING 1. LAW OF EFFECT: Learning occurs if, and only if the VICTORKING response has some effect on the learner and provides satisfaction. 2. LAW OF READINESS: Learners should be put in a suitable mental state of preparedness (preparatory adjustment), positive mood and stimulating physical environment for meaningful learning to occur 3. LAW Of EXERCISE : (Law of Use and Disuse). VI CT OR KI NG Law of Use states that use of S-R connections will strengthen the bond and disuse weakens it. “Practice makes perfect”. All play and no work makes X a dull learner.  THORNDIKE’S SIX PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING 1. Principle of Prepotency or Discrimination learning: tendency to distinguish between a successful effort and VICTORKING one that is not. 2. Principle of Multiple Response: giving different responses to a single stimulus. e.g. A farm youth may throw stone and kill a snake at one instance; or decide to run away from the snake at another. 3. Principle of Mental Set: showing positive or negative mental set. Learners may respond in certain peculiar ways to particular situations. VICTORKING 4. Principle of Analogy or Assimilation: responding to a new stimulus in a way that looks like a response used for a past similar situation. A farm child throws a stone to scare away or kill a snake; and similarly throws a stick to scare away or kill a scorpion. 5. Principle of Associative Shifting: ( any response of which a learner is capable may be attached any VICTORKING stimulation to which he/she is sensitive. 6. Principle of Partial Activity.  OPERANT LEARNING THEORY PRINCIPLES (B.F. Skinner) VICTORKING 1. Behaviour followed by reinforcing events (rewards) increase in frequency. 2. Behaviour not followed by reinforcement decrease in frequency. 3. Behaviour followed by punishment decrease in frequency. A “Reinforcer” is any consequence (events, praise, tangible rewards, etc) which follows a behaviour and results in an increased frequency of that behaviour. VICTORKING Types of Reinforcer: 1. Social reinforcer: praise, recognition, physical affection, etc. 2. Tangible rewards: money, expensive gifts, etc. 3. Token rewards: not as tangible as tangible rewards Cognitive theories Cognitive learning is an active style of learning that focuses on helping you learn how to maximize your brain’s potential. VICTORKING It makes it easier for you to connect new information with existing ideas hence deepening your memory and retention capacity. The ability of the brain’s mental processes to absorb and retain information through experience, senses, and thought is known as cognition. 16  Fundamental aspects of cognitive learning 1. Comprehension: For cognitive learning to be efficient and benefit you, VICTORKING understand the reason why you are learning a specific subject in the first place. 2. Memory: Cognitive learning discourages cramming of information, which is very ineffective in education. Having a deep understanding of a subject improves your ability to relate new knowledge with previous experiences or information. 3. Application: Cognitive learning strategies help you apply new information or skills in life situations. They encourage you as you continue to develop problem-solving skills. 17 Cognitive categories. Social Cognitive Theory: This theory helps us understand how people are influenced and their influence on the environment. VICTORKING Cognitive Behavioral Theory: This theory mainly refers to our mental processes, such as our thoughts and interpretations of life events. 18 Positive effects of Cognitive learning Enhances learning VICTORKING Boosts confidence Enhances Comprehension Improves problem-solving skills Help learn new things faster Teaches to form concept formation (think abstract) 19  I want to thank you for Listening. VICTORKING I will be back with you 30 minutes before the end of the class to take your questions and comment. Before then, Enjoy yourself VICT OR KI NG Covid-19 Is Real!!! Please stay safe Extension Teaching, Learning VICTORKING Process and Methods ARD 301/ Department of Agric. Extension and Rural Dev. Adetayo Aromolaran 1  VICTORKING You’re welcome!!! How are you this morning? Let us start with introduction VICTORKING ARD 301 is a course that will guide you on how to learn properly, teach correctly, understand processes involve in learning and teaching by exploring its methods and theories These will improve your interaction and communication skills with your clients, audience and the society 3 Lecturers I will coordinate this course with the following lecturers NG Prof. Omotayo A. M. VI CT OR KI Dr. Alarima C. I. Dr. Adeyeye O. A. Dr. Adetarami Some of the expected areas Concept of Motivation VICTORKING Motivation Theories Simple Learning Process Learning Theories and Theorists Extension Teaching Methods and Process Principle of analyzing communication problems and so on….. 5 VICTORKING 6  of CT Concept VI ORKING Motivation 7 What is Motivation Motivation – Greek-Kinitro, Latin Motus – movere- to move, agitate, stir VICTORKING Motivation is an inner progression that generate force which instigate an individual to initiate a goal oriented behavior that can leads to an action taken to accomplish a set objective. it is considered as a driving force; a psychosomatic feature that compels or reinforces an action toward a desired goal VICTORKING 9  Motivation is the inner power or energy that pushes one toward performing a certain action. behaviour. VICTORKING It explains “why” of Motivation revolves around what arouses, sustains and regulates goals directed behaviour. 10 Factors that can motivate Desirable change and power VICTORKING Rewards Social affiliation Achievement Negative/punishment 11 Type of Motivation Extrinsic - motivation that prompts an action or engagement in activity in order to earn a reward or avoid VICTORKING a punishment. Intrinsic - motivation that is driven by an interest or enjoyment in the task itself and exists within the individual rather than relying on external pressures or a desire for reward. 12 VICTORKING 13 Push and Pull The push motivation could also be described as internal motivation. It’s an internal state that thrust one to act in VICTORKING a certain way towards achieving a certain goal. Also, motivation could be a pull or external motivation. This is when an external goal influences one’s behavior towards them. Behavior is a complex blend of internal pushes and external pulls 14 VICTORKING 15 Positive and Negative Positive: The force that motivates a person could be positive; in the sense that it can impel one to reach a certain goal. VICTORKING For example a student can be motivated about attending classes because he will likely see their friends and colleagues as well as having a good grade. Negative: It can also be negative as one can be driven away from an unwanted situation. For example; bills to pay, poverty and lack of money could negatively motivate a person to always show up at work daily. 16 Basic and Learned Basic or primary motives are unlearned and common to both human being and animals. primary motives include hunger, thirst, urge, avoidance of pain and aggression and fear. VICTORKING The learned or secondary motives include achievement, power, recognition, and love. People go to work in order to earn money to get food and avoid social exclusion or in order to attain a position in an organisation 17 See you next class Enjoy yourself, Improve knowledge and sharpen your skills VI CT OR KI NG Thank you for Listening 18 Extension Teaching, Learning VICTORKING Process and Methods ARD 301/ Department of Agric. Extension and Rural Dev. Adetayo Aromolaran 1  VICTORKING You’re welcome!!! How are you this morning? VICTORKING 3  of CT TheoriesVI ORKING Motivation 4 Abraham Maslow Theory Man is always wanting and their needs are many. A satisfied need is not a motivator of behaviour, only unsatisfied needs motivate. VICTORKING Man’s needs are arranged in a series of levels - a hierarchy of importance. The needs at the lower level of the hierarchy must be satisfied before the next higher needs is entertained and satisfied. There is a need for a new and higher need to emerge as the lower need is fulfilled  Self VICTORKING Actualization Self Esteem Social Need /Sense of belonging Safety Need Physiological /Basic Need  In order to apply Maslow’s basic theory of needs as a determining factor in motivation and behaviour of an individual, it is important to note the following; Levels in the hierarchy are not rigidly fixed; they overlap at VICTORKING boundaries between them even though are indistinctly differentiated. There are individual exceptions to the general ranking of the hierarchy. Some people never progress beyond the first or second level; others are so obsessed with the higher needs that lower ones may go largely unnoticed. An individual act is more likely caused by many needs rather than a single need. 7 Achievement Motivation It is described as the innate need of man to perform very well, achieve success and being noticed for such VICTORKING accomplishment. individual with low N-Ach may choose very easy tasks, in order to minimize risk of failure Individual with high N-Ach tend to choose moderately difficult tasks, feeling that they are challenging, but within reach 8 VICTORKING 9 Murray’s Theory of Motivation The theory was organised based on the motives, presses and need. VICTORKING Murray described needs to prompt our readiness to respond in a certain way under a given situation. It was also pointed out that psychogenic needs function mostly on the unconscious level, but play a major role in motivation of human behaviour. Primary Needs are based on biological demands. Secondary Needs are generally psychological needs for nurturing, independence and achievement. 10 Ambition needs – These are needs that capture the attitude of individual desire to overcome obstacles, exercise power, attracts attention for achievement, exhibition and recognition. VICTORKING Materialistic needs – these include the desire to gain possession (Acquisition), keeping things (conservancy), organize, creating and build (Construction), making things neat, tidy and clean (order) Power needs; it involves the need to be independent, resistant, following rules and avoiding blame, obeying and cooperating with others as well as controlling them. Affection needs; needs for affiliation, nurturance, rejection and succorance. Information needs it includes seeking knowledge, asking questions, giving information to others and explaining and educating others. 11 Hull’s Drive Reduction theory People are motivated to take certain actions in order to reduce VICTORKING the internal tension that is caused by unmet needs Hull used the term drive to refer to the state of tension or arousal caused by biological or physiological needs. 12  A drive creates an unpleasant state; a tension that needs to be reduced. In order to reduce this state of tension, humans and animals seek out ways to fulfill these biological needs. VICTORKING We turn up the thermostat when we are cold. He suggested that humans and animals will then repeat any behavior that reduces these drives. The theory does not explain how secondary reinforcers reduce drive. For example, money does not itself satisfy any biological or psychological need, but it reduces drive on a regular basis by a paycheck. 13 Psychoanalytic Theory of motivation It is refers to as the study of psychic determinants of human behavior; psychoanalysis is considered to be high- level theory VICTORKING containing sub–theories. Psychoanalytic theory builds upon Sigmund Freud's suggestion that you have two competing drives in your life: Eros, the life drive, and Thanatos, the death drive. 14  According to Psychoanalytic theory, Freud believed that the vast majority of our knowledge about these drives is buried in the VICTORKING unconscious part of the mind and everything we do, everything we are can be traced back to the two basic drives. Most of the Freud’s observations were from his clinical experiment Freud distinguished three levels of consciousness – the conscious, the subconscious and the unconscious 15  ID which is the instinctive core of the personality, is a primitive, impulsive and subject to the principle of pleasure. VICTORKING ID uses reflex reactions and primary representation in order to obtain immediate gratification of instinctual impulses. This aspect of personality is driven by internal/basic drives and needs. EGO is the rational part of the personality and the principle of reality. 16  SUPEREGO, the latest in the emerging process of personal development, it is the moral side. The superego consists of two structures – the conscience and ego ideal. VICTORKING The flaw of this theory is that it did not consider the impact of environment and culture on human personality. 17 Let’s watch the short clip. VICTORKING 18  Let’s examine ourselves 1. Which kind of motivation best describes the in- flow and out- flow of people from Ponzi Schemes 2. If you are to relate positive and negative motivation to push and VICTORKING pull type of motivation. Which one will be push? and which will be pull? 3. Select any of the Theories of Motivation to explain a real life situation with relevant examples Send your answers as an attachment to this e-mail [email protected] let the subject be “Assignment” Deadline – Sunday, February 14th 2021 by 12PM. 19 VICTORKING For comments and feedback on this aspect of ARD 301 _Motivation Kindly forward your suggestions, comments and feedback to VICTORKING [email protected] Let the subject of the mail be Comments and Feedback. 21 VICTORKING 22