Risks from Air Pollution PDF

Risks from air pollution CEV 301 Air Quality Management Effects on health and human welfare The harmful effects of air pollutants on human beings have been the major reason for efforts to understand and control their sources. During the past two decades, research on acidic deposition on water-b...

Risks from air pollution CEV 301 Air Quality Management Effects on health and human welfare The harmful effects of air pollutants on human beings have been the major reason for efforts to understand and control their sources. During the past two decades, research on acidic deposition on water-based ecosystems and greenhouse gas emissions on climate has helped to reemphasize the importance of air pollutants in other receptors, such as soil-based ecosystems. When discussing the impact of air pollutants on ecosystems, their interaction with air, water, and soil media on different geographic scales should be known. CARBON CYCLE https://scripps.ucsd.edu/programs/keelingcurv e/tag/keeling-curve/  Antarctic Ice Core Data CO2 varies over geologic time, within the range 190 – 280 ppm for the last 420,000 years. The variations correlate with climate: cold  low CO2. Is CO2 driving climate or vice versa? The heavier temperature lines 160,000 BP to present reflect more data points, not necessarily greater variability. Source: Climate and Atmospheric History of the past 420,000 years from the Vostok Ice Core, Antarctica, by Petit J.R., Jouzel J., Raynaud D., Barkov N.I., Barnola J.M., Basile I., Bender M., Chappellaz J., Davis J. Delaygue G., Delmotte M. Kotlyakov V.M., Legrand M., Lipenkov V.M., Lorius C., Pépin L., Ritz C., Saltzman E., Stievenard M., Nature, 3 June 1999. ATMOSPHERIC CO2 INCREASE OVER PAST 1000 YEARS Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), 2007 The Nitrogen Cycle The Sulphur Cycle Human health effects of air pollutants POLLUTANT BODY SYSTEM HEALTH EFFECTS Particulate Matter Lower respiratory system. Asthma (PM2.5 and PM10) Particulate Bronchitis matter less than 10 μm in Reduced lung function diameter gets into Cancer the lower respiratory Heavy metal poisoning system, particularly during exercise. Lead (Pb) Organs and soft tissue. Anemia Lead concentrations and High blood pressure accumulates in bones Cancer and soft tissue. A high Neurological disorders concentration of lead Intellectual function in the body poisons the blood, nervous and renal systems. POLLUTANT BODY SYSTEM HEALTH EFFECTS Carbon Monoxide Circulatory system. Carbon CO poisoning (CO) monoxide interferes with the Angina pectoris blood’s ability to provide Neurological dysfunction an adequate supply of oxygen to Brain damage body tissue. Fetal abnormalities Asphyxiation Nitrogen Dioxide Respiratory system. NO2 is very NO2 poisoning (NO2) toxic at high levels. Asthma Lowered resistance to Infection Sulfur Dioxide (SO2) Respiratory system. SO2 poisoning Asthma directly affects the respiratory Bronchial constriction system and increases airway SO2 poisoning resistance adding to heart lung Heart attack load. Lung inflammation Ozone (O3) Respiratory system. Tropospheric Reduced lung elasticity ozone results in irritation of the Transient cough respiratory system. Chest pain Throat irritation Nausea Lead Exposure Sources: ore and metals processing and piston-engine aircraft operating, waste incinerators, utilities, and lead- acid battery manufacturers. Leaded petrol poisoning has been one of the world’s most serious environmental health problems, responsible for 90% or more of human lead exposure. A UNEP- commissioned study (Hatfield, Journal of Environmental Health, 2011) estimates the benefits of the global elimination of leaded petrol at over 1.2 million premature deaths avoided per year, of which 125,000 are children. The overall global benefit of eliminating leaded petrol adds up to $2.45 trillion per year. Mn emissions due to MMT (Methylcyclopentadienyl manganese tricarbonyl) in unleaded gasoline Used for many years as an alternative to boost octane and to prevent valve problems in old cars designed for leaded fuel A suspected neurotoxin and respiratory toxin (manganese may cause memory impairment, tremors, and psychosis similar to Parkinson’s Disease) Recent studies scientifically justified their impacts on the environment. They concluded that MMT is unlikely to develop to levels of concern and, therefore, poses a low risk for terrestrial or aquatic environments. PFAS- Per- and Polyfluoralkyl Substances PFAS are a family of chemicals used since the 1940s to manufacture stain-resistant, water-resistant and non- stick products. These substances stay in the environment for a long time because they do not break down easily. As a result, PFAS are widely detected in soil, water, air and food. People can be exposed to PFAS when they use products that contain the compounds, eat PFAS- contaminated food or drink PFAS-contaminated water. When ingested, some PFAS can build up in the body. Over time, they may accumulate to levels associated with negative health outcomes. PFAS Regulation in US EPA On 10 April 2024, EPA announced National Primary Drinking Water Regulation for six PFAS. Public water systems must monitor for these PFAS and have three years to complete initial monitoring (by 2027), followed by ongoing compliance monitoring. Water systems must also provide the public with information on the levels of these PFAS in their drinking water beginning in 2027. Public water systems have five years (by 2029) to implement solutions that reduce these PFAS if monitoring shows that drinking water levels exceed these MCLs. Beginning in five years (2029), public water systems that have PFAS in drinking water which violates one or more of these MCLs must take action to reduce levels of these PFAS in their drinking water and must provide notification to the public of the violation. Restriction Plan in EU Since 2020, five Competent Authorities of Germany, Netherlands, Sweden, Norway, and Denmark have been preparing a restriction dossier for all PFAS. The restriction proposal was submitted to ECHA on 13 January 2023; The restriction would cover PFAS manufacturing, use, and placement on the EU market; It is argued that high persistence is the main concern for all PFAS along with concerns resulting from a specific combination of properties; They also argue that releases of PFAS are considered a risk to the environment that it is not adequately controlled. No regulation in TURKIYE... Health effects of metals (Hg, Pb, Cd, As) Human Respiratory System The primary function of the human respiratory system is to deliver O2 to the bloodstream and to remove CO2 from the body. Partical and gas behaviour in lungs Particle behavior in the lung is dependent on the aerodynamic characteristics (size, shape and density) of particles in flow streams. For gases, the solubility of the gaseous molecules in the linings of the different regions of the respiratory system is important. How deeply particles can be inhaled into the human respiratory tract. Nasal Bronchial Pulmanory Effects on vegetation and animals Injury is considered to be any observable alteration in the plant when exposed to air pollution. Damage is defined as an economic or aesthetic loss due to interference with the intended use of a plant. This distinction indicates that injury by air pollution does not necessarily result in damage because any given injury may not prevent the plant from being used as intended, e.g., marketed. Thus, damage is a value-laden concept. Trees absorbs air pollution therefore it removes the pollution… Deciduous vegetation absorbs one- third more air pollution than previously believed — tens of millions of metric tons worldwide. Air pollution – like many other stresses – causes qualitative and quantitative changes in primary and secondary metabolites. There is often an increase in concentrations of amino acids (proline), soluble proteins and sugars in the leaves, increasing their nutritional quality for some insects. Schematic representation of the behavior of the various pollutants (gaseous and particulate) towards plants.  SO2 injury SO2 injury Ozone injury SO2 injury Ozone injury Fluoride injury  Gaseous air pollutants enter plants through leaf stomata while particulate pollutants are captured by the micro-structure of leaf surfaces. The phytotoxicity of air pollutants depends on their chemical nature. The pollutants induce oxidative stress in the plant with the production of free radicals (hydroxyl radicals) and reactive oxygen derivatives (ROD) that cause damage in the leaf. The plant uses processes such as stomatal closure to limit the absorption of the pollutant. Some external factors can have a positive impact on the plant’s response to air pollution. Thus, drought leads to the closure of stomata, which protects the plant. Air pollution, by modifying plant physiology and biochemistry, has a decisive effect on ecosystems, including plant-insect interactions. Nitrogen compounds are not very phytotoxic but have a strong impact on vegetation: a beneficial fertilizing effect in the first place and a negative impact in the long term by causing eutrophication of ecosystems. 90% of the yield losses due to air pollution in the plant world come from ozone. While the various particulate pollutants have little or no impact on vegetation, they contaminate the food chains of humans and animals through the plants that are consumed. Air pollution alters the nutritional qualities of plants used by plant insects. Plant defenses against insects are altered by air pollution. The impact of air pollution on animals is more or less similar to that on man. Emissions from automobiles and industries accumulate in the atmosphere. This gets into animals’ bodies through inhalation of gases and particulate matter, ingestion of contaminated food and water with air pollutants and in the case of certain amphibians, through skin absorption. Effect of Air Pollution on Animals 1. Altered animal behavior Pollutants have been shown in a growing number of studies to cause strange behavior in animals. Endocrine disruptors, heavy metals, and PCBs have a direct impact on animal social and mating behavior. 2. Diseases and Mortality The impact is usually indirect, but it gradually kills animals by altering biological systems. Pollutants in the air impair endocrine function, harm organs, and reduce reproductive success. Long-term exposure to contaminants can boost neurodegenerative disease disorders. 3. Biodiversity loss The fundamental structure and function of ecosystems are being altered by air pollution. Excess nitrogen deposition in the form of ammonia is one of the most significant stressors on biodiversity. Biodiversity is important for animals since its loss can trigger changes in the food chain and the extinction of some species. Moreover, the loss of biodiversity can potentially raise the danger of infectious illnesses. Effect of Air Pollution on Animals 4. Change in species distribution A shift in the abundance of a species can be caused by industrial air pollution. For example, increasing aluminum levels may cause: Extinction of some fish species Allowing bug species to thrive Benefit ducks that feed on insects. However, eagles, ospreys, and other fish-eating creatures may suffer as a result of this loss. 5. Eating Plants with Pollutants When animals eat particulate-coated plants, they get Arsenic poisoning. In pets, lead poisoning causes pneumonia and a loss of appetite. Moreover, pesticides can cause difficulties breathing, drowsiness, muscular spasms, vomiting, and loss of coordination in animals. These were some of the Effects of Air Pollution on Plants and Animals Effects on Materials and Structures Effects on metals Effects on stone Effects on fabrics and dyes Effects on leather, paper, paint and glass Effects on metals The principal effects of air pollutants on metals are corrosion of the surface, with eventual loss of material from the surface, and alteration in the electrical properties of the metals. Metals are divided into two categories: Ferrous (iron and various types of steel) and Nonferrous (zinc, aluminum, copper, and silver) Chemical corrosion Oxidation corrosion Corrosion by other gases Liquid metal corrosion Rate of corrosion of metals: moisture type of pollution temperature Effects on Stone soiling and deterioration of limestone (which is widely used as a building material and for marble statuary) The surfaces have become soiled and are subjected to chemical attack by acid gases. Exterior building surfaces are also subjected to a wet–dry cycle from rain and elevated humidity. SO2 + H2O + CaCO3 → CaSO4 or CaSO4.2H20 soluble in water penetrate into the pores of the limestone and recrystallize and expand deterioration of the stone CO2 + H2O + CaCO3 → Ca + HCO3 water soluble leached away by rain the deterioration of marble statues. Effects on Fabrics and dyes The major effects of air pollution on fabrics are soiling and loss of tensile strength. Sulfur oxides are considered to cause the greatest loss of tensile strength. Long-Term Effects on the Planet Global Climate Change The change in long-term weather patterns in certain regions Ozone Holes Stratospheric ozone depletion Global Climate Change Two main effects associated with climate change: (1) An increase in global mean temperature (2) An increase in evaporation everywhere, driven by increased greenhouse gas concentrations and increased temperatures. Global temperature rise Atmospheric greenhouse gas levels from NOAA-Mauna Loa Observatory for 1990 to 2024 Latest peak CO2 record: 426.9 ppm May 2024 2023 2022 The reason of hot summer 2023 is EL Nino https://youtu.be/rEbE5fcnFVs Keeling Curve, Mauna Loa, Hawaii Historical high : May 2023 424.68 ppm https://scripps.ucsd.edu/programs/keelingcurve/ Atmospheric window Global temperatures are likely to surge to record levels in the next five years, fuelled by heat- trapping greenhouse gases and a naturally occurring El Niño event, according to our new climate update. There is a 66% likelihood that the annual average near-surface global temperature between 2023 and 2027 will be more than 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels for at least one year. There is a 98% likelihood that at least one of the next five years, and the five-year period as a whole, will be the warmest on record. Arctic warming is disproportionately high - it is expected to be more than three times as large as the global mean anomaly when averaged over the next five northern hemisphere extended winters. Türkiye extreme weather events trend with 1030 events, 2023 has the highest records Timeline of the UN climate negotiations 2001 Rules of 1997 Kyoto 1992 UNFCC the Kyoto Protocol Protocol Emission reduction targets for developed countries (in aggregate 5% below 1990 in 2008 to 2012) Flexibility in reaching targets International emission trading Joint implementation Clean Development Mechanism  1997 Kyoto 2001 Rules of the 1992 UNFCC Protocol Kyoto Protocol 2007 Bali 2009 2010 Cancun 2011 Durban 2015 Paris 2020 Action Plan Copenhagen Agreements platform Agreement Kyoto Protocol track Paris Agreement track Status of Paris Agreement Turkey signed the agreement on April 22, 2016, in New York The Paris Agreement enter into force for Turkey on Nov. 10, 2021 Figure 1 – Canada, U.S. and EU – Past and Projected Emissions 1990 to 2030  -41% 695 Ozone Holes  315-400 nm 100-280 nm 280-315 nm  CHAPMAN MECHANISM FOR STRATOSPHERIC OZONE (1930) (R1) O2 + h → O + O ( < 240 nm) (R2) O + O 2 + M → O3 + M (R3) O3 + h → O 2 + O (  320 nm) (R4) O3 + O → 2O 2 Only rxn that produce O3 in the atm. Odd oxygen family [Ox] = [O3] + [O] slow R2 R1 O2 O fast O3 R3 R4 slow A theory for the origin of this ozone layer was proposed in 1930 by Sydney Chapman, and is known as Chapman mechanism. Lowest value of ozone measured by TOMS each year in the ozone hole Ozone levels stabilized in the 1990s following the Montreal Protocol, and have started to recover. They are projected to reach pre-1980 levels before 2075.  In 1975, Rowland and Molina postulated that chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) could modify the steady-state concentrations of stratospheric ozone. CFCs are chemically very stable compounds and have been used for over 50 years as refrigerants, aerosol propellants, foam blowing agents, cleaning agents, and fire suppressants.  2006 Antarctic Ozone Hole: most severe observed Aura OMI – 8 Oct 2006 Ozone Hole Minimum Minimum of 85 DU on 8 Oct 2006 The ozone hole is an austral spring phenomenon – it is not there year-round!  POLAR STRATOSPHERIC CLOUDS Liquid and solid particles in PSC provide the sites where fast heterogeneous chemical reactions convert inactive halogen reservoir species (HCl and ClONO2) into potential ozone destroying radicals. PSC ClNO3 + HCl → Cl2 + HNO3 Cl2 + hv → 2 Cl  PSC FORMATION AT COLD TEMPERATURES North Pole PSC formation Frost point of water South Pole Thomas Midgle Jr. «The most dangerous man who ever lived» Development of leaded gasoline: discovered that the addition of Tetraethyl lead to gasoline prevented "knocking" in internal combustion engines Syhthesis of Freon: In the late 1920s, air Born May 18, 1889 conditioning and refrigeration systems Died November 2, 1944 (aged 55) employed compounds such Nationality American as ammonia (NH3), chloromethane (CH3Cl), Alma mater Cornell University propane, and sulfur dioxide(SO2) Known for Leaded petrol as refrigerants. They discover a n alternative CFCs refirigerant which is non-toxic, non- Awards William H. Nichols Medal (1922) flammable, chemically inert material «CFC» Longstreth Medal (1925) Perkin Medal (1937) called freon. Priestley Medal (1941) Willard Gibbs Award (1942) a single chlorine atom from a CFC can break over 100,000 ozone molecules Fields Mechanical engineering Chemistry