APS Exam Review 2024-25 PDF

Terms Quizlet UNIT 1: Intro. to Social Science Terms and Concepts TERM DEFINITION Social Science The scientific study of human society and social relationships. Humanities the studies of philosophy, religion, history, lang...

Terms Quizlet UNIT 1: Intro. to Social Science Terms and Concepts TERM DEFINITION Social Science The scientific study of human society and social relationships. Humanities the studies of philosophy, religion, history, language arts, performing arts, and visual arts Anthropology The study of human societies, cultures and their development. Psychology The scientific study of the human mind and its functions in an individual. Sociology The study of groups, organizations, and societies, and how people react within these contexts. Positivism Class conflict Conflict between different classes in a community resulting from different social or economic positions. Conscious mind Memories we can recall. Unconscious mind Memories we cannot recall. Free association State of complete relaxation (hypnosis) where a list of words would be read out to the patient who would then respond with the first word/thought that comes to mind. Id Operates using the pleasure principle. Ego Operates using the “reality principle”. Superego The moral center of the mind. Archetypes Individual psychology People are aware of the goals and values that guide them. Analytical psychology A theory of human personality and thought that takes into account the individual unconscious and its relationship to the collective unconscious. Unconditioned stimulus A stimulus that leads to an immediate response. 2  Conditioned stimulus A stimulus that can eventually trigger a conditioned response. (ex. If a bell rings every time the dog is about to get food, eventually he will know that when he hears the bell he's getting food and will start to salivate) Unconditioned An automatic response to a stimulus. (ex. The dog salivating when he sees response food is an unconditioned response) Conditioned response Response that doesn’t come naturally but is learned through a stimulus. Hierarchy of needs A theory of psychologist Abraham Maslow. The hierarchy is diagrammed as a pyramid starting at the bottom with basic needs that must be satisfied for an individual to be able to progress to addressing more secondary needs. Classical conditioning Interested in the relationship between a stimulus and response. Pavlov believed that humans were also conditioned to act in certain ways, we tend to behave in ways we know from prior experiences will reward us. Operant conditioning A learning process where voluntary behaviours are modified by association with a reward or punishment. Ethnography the scientific description of the customs of individual peoples and cultures. Culturally constructed Created or shaped by a culture. Reflexivity Subculture a cultural group within a larger culture, often having beliefs or interests at variance with those of the larger culture. Content/Theory 1. Explain the Process of Inquiry by outlining each of the 5 steps (provide an example of each) STAGE DEFINITION EXAMPLE 1. Identify a problem or Every inquiry begins with a problem or a Does playing violent video question question that provides a reason for games make someone research. behave more violently? 2. Focus Determine what you know, identify your Violent behaviour can be sources taught;aggression is the result of the inadequate diffusion of frustration. 3. Develop a hypothesis A possible answer to a question, an Playing violent video games estimated answer/education guess makes someone behave more violently 3 4. Collect data Once questions and hypotheses are clear, Collect data through researchers decide how to gather observation. information that will help them evaluate if their hypothesis is correct. 5. Assemble/analyze data Once data has been collected the Organize collected data and researcher must organize and analyze and relevant information. interpret the data. 6. Stop and check Have you collected enough data to confirm Yes or refute your hypothesis? 7. Draw conclusions Finally the researcher must decide whether The hypothesis was the hypothesis should be confirmed, confirmed, exposure to changed or rejected. violent video games makes people behave violently. 8. Reflection What went well? What would you do Reflect on your research differently next time? process, analysis, and conclusion. 2. Explain each of the Research Methods and give an example for each. (Experiment/Sample Survey/Interview/Case Study/Observational Techniques (3)/Correlation Study/Historical Analysis/Content Analysis) RESEARCH DEFINITION EXAMPLE METHOD Experiment a scientific procedure undertaken to make a discovery, test a coke/pepsi hypothesis, or demonstrate a known fact. experiment Sample Survey A survey to collect data on a sample census Interview a meeting usually face to face especially for the purpose of job interview talking or consulting Case Study a detailed study of a specific subject, such as a person, group, Freud’s case place, event, organization, or phenomenon studies Observational Structured: looking for certain things Structured: Techniques observing the Unstructured: not looking for specific things patient's feelings Participant: researcher is a part of the activities of the participants Unstructured: just looking to see how participants 4  interact Participant: staying with a family to see how they interact Correlation Study Researchers measure two variables and assess the statistical A study may relationship (i.e., the correlation) between them with little or no examine the effort to control extraneous variables. relationship between self-esteem and social anxiety. Historical Analysis A method of the examination of evidence in coming to an understanding of the past. Content Analysis A method used to analyse qualitative data (non-numerical data) 3. Explain the following Sociological Schools of Thought: Functionalism, The Conflict School, Symbolic Interactionism, & Feminist Theory SCHOOL OF DEFINITION THOUGHT Structural-Functionalism Each society should provide its members with the fundamental requirements (macro level) for functioning. A system must have a way of fulfilling material needs, a system for socializing and educating the young and a way of regulating human production. Conflict School/ Based on ideas proposed by Karl Marx, he believed that economic power Neo-Marxism led to political power. The economic system creates a rich class of owners (macro level) (bourgeois) and a poor class of workers (proletariat). Symbolic Interactionism Believe humans have complex brains and very little instinctive behaviours. (micro level) How we as individuals process and interpret what we observe in society, not societies institutions that form the core of our value system. Feminist Theory Focus on sex and gender issues, believing that women have traditionally (micro and macro level) been disadvantaged in society because mean have discriminated against them. 4. Explain the following Psychological Schools of Thought: Psychoanalysis, Behavioural Psychology, Cognitive Psychology, & Humanistic Psychology 5 5. Explain the following Anthropological Schools of Thought: Cultural Relativism, Functional Theory, Cultural Materialism, Feminist Anthropology, Postmodernism SCHOOL OF DEFINITION THOUGHT Cultural Relativism An anthropologist cannot compare 2 cultures because each culture has their own rules that must be accepted. Everyone sees cultures through the lens of their own. Functional Theory The idea that every belief, action or relationship in a culture functions to meet the needs of individuals. **Cultural Materialism** Materials or conditions within the environment influences how a culture develops creating the ideas and ideology of a culture. There are 3 stages of cultural development: 1) Infrastructure 2) Structure 3) Super Structure Feminist Anthropology Ensure female voices were heard and included in research, compare cultures to see how many were dominated by men. Postmodernism The belief that it is impossible to have any “true” knowledge about the world. You understand the world based on your own culture. 6. What are the subfields of Anthropology? What is the focus of study of each subfield? 7. Explain the main contributions made by the following individuals: Sociology: Auguste Comte, Emile Durkheim, Karl Marx, & Max Weber. Psychology: Sigmund Freud, Alfred Adler, B.F. Skinner, Edward Lee Thorndike, and Ivan Pavlov Sociology: INDIVIDUAL CONTRIBUTIONS Auguste - coined the term sociology Comte - originated the use of scientific method such as observation and analysis to study society Emile - helped propel sociology Durkheim - established the sociological method - his theories provided the foundation of structural functionalism - first sociologist Karl Marx - he found society was basf on a fierce competition for power & wealth - saw this conflict as the only way societies evolved from one system to the next 6 Max Weber - introduced rationalization - he believed social inequalities and disparities could not be explained in only economic terms, inequality mean unequal access to society’s resources Psychology: INDIVIDUAL CONTRIBUTIONS Sigmund Freud - founded the psychoanalytical theory Alfred Adler - believed power motivated people B.F. Skinner - responsible for operant conditioning Edward L. - developed the theory of law and effect Thorndike - thorndike puzzle box Ivan Pavlov - classical conditioning Anthropology: INDIVIDUAL CONTRIBUTIONS Franz Boas - founded the cultural relativism theory Bronislaw - founded the functional theory Malinowski Marvin Harris - founded the cultural materialism theory UNIT 2: Sociology Terms and Concepts TERM DEFINITION Socialization A process where someone learns the attitudes, values and behaviours that are valuable and necessary for the society they belong to. We use socialization to determine how to behave in different situations. Social behaviour The interaction among members of the same group responding to external and internal behaviour. Internal stimuli When your behaviour is guided by prior observations. 7 External stimuli When your behaviour is guided by observing the people around you for ques about how you should behave. Social influence The effect of other people on a person’s thoughts or actions. Direct influence Ex. joining your friends at a sushi restaurant even though you want a burger Indirect influence Ex. dating or not dating someone based on the reactions you think you will get from your family Primary socialization The process of learning the basic skills needed to survive in society (such as hygiene, eating with utensils, appropriate dress and how to use language) Secondary socialization The process of learning how to behave appropriately in group situations. Anticipatory The ability we develop to think ahead and act accordingly. socialization Resocialization The process by which negative behavior is transformed into socially acceptable behavior. Feral children Unwanted children deserted at a young age and raised by animals. Isolated children Children who have been raised in human households but have been severely neglected (physically, emotionally, or socially during their early years) Agents of socialization The various individuals, institutions and organizations that help shape an individual’s social development. Manifest function The visible purpose of school; to teach us the academic skills we need to prosper in society as employees and employers Latent function The hidden purpose of school; to socialize us to understand and cooperate with strangers, some of whom we may not even like! Peer group People of the same age. The adolescent peer group creates the opportunity to learn skills such as communication, collaboration and compromise. Primarily responsible for teaching individuals about sexual relationships. The adolescent peer group is highly susceptible to the influence of media. Social identity The way you define yourself to the world and to yourself. Our social identity helps us when interacting with a number of people in a variety of situations. Elements such as gender, culture, age and social class aid in the formation of social identity. Social roles Patterns of behavior that are expected of a person in a specific social 8  situation. They are expectations attached to particular social positions. Situation view of The belief that the individual's behavior changes from encounter to behavior encounter. Personality view of The belief that the individual shows consistency in behavior from one behaviour situation to another. Role identity The behavior an individual displays in order to fulfill the expectations of a specific role. Group based identity The development of self-concept and identity through membership in a social group with whom the individual shares similar values and beliefs. Ascribed roles Roles that are assigned, with little or no choice on the part of the individual. Achieved roles Social roles that are chosen and achieved with some effort. Social norms The values, beliefs, and behaviours that are shared by a group of people. Gender roles One of the many roles an individual is expected to enact throughout his or her lifetime. Gender is internalized at a young age from our family and accepted norms based on masculinity and femininity. Social inequality The inability of some people and the success of others to attain access to the privileges, rewards or assets of society. Ableism Discrimination or social prejudice based on the assumptions about people with physical disabilities; the assumption that able-bodied people are the norm. Ageism Discrimination against people/groups based on their age; affects all life stages, common in young & elderly Sexism individual /institutional discrimination based on gender Racism Inferiority to a racial group; unequal treatment of the group Classism Discrimination based on social class; benefit upper class, exclude lower Group 2 or more people who interact with each other and are aware of having something in common Large group More than two people who accomplish significant goals Dyad A two-member social group Informal group Less intimate gatherings of people in which member interaction is nkt governed by explicit rules Primary group Strong emotional attachment, close personal relationships (ex. Family, 9  souse, close friends) Secondary group Less personal, more formal; role is measured by contribution to a common goal or purpose Virtual group A group of individuals who communicate online Sanctions Used to encourage members to conform to group expectations Collective behaviour Any unified behaviour in a group Crowds A large # of people, in close proximity, gathered for a specific reason Casual crowd A group of people in the same place at the same time but do not have a common goal Expressive crowd A large # of people at an event who display emotion or excitement Mobs A large, disorderly crowd of people, often meant to push and shove, annoy or express anger Riots A wild/turbulent disturbance created by a large £ of people caused by aggression/acts of violence, vandalism, and destruction of property Conformity The process by which an individual will alter or change his or her thoughts, feelings and behavior to meet the expectations of a group or authority figure. Groupthink Refers to the effects of collective pressure on the decision-making abilities of individual members of a group Chameleon effect The mimicking of the body language of a person with whom we are interacting. Bystander effect The phenomenon in which the greater the number of people present, the less likely people are to help a person in distress. Obedience The act or habit of doing what one is told or submitting to authority. Social institution An organization or social framework whose function is to meet the basic needs of its members by providing direction and operating principles for society. Personal institution Institutions such as family, that closely affect an individual's life. Impersonal institution Institutions like the government that affect the behavior of large groups of people. Total institution Are intended to wipe out the results of prior socialization; emphasis is on removing individuality and replacing it with a common group identity 10 Content/Theory 1. What is social behaviour and what influences it? (there are 4) Social Behaviour: the interaction among members of the same group responding to external and internal stimuli. Internal Stimuli: when your behavior is guided by prior observations External Stimuli: when your behavior is guided by observing the people around you for dues about how you should behave. 4 Main Influences on Social Behaviour: Family: individual learns values and acceptable behaviors from his or her family Gender: how we behave as either a male or female is determined by the role given to our gender by the society in which we live Culture: each of us is raised in a specific culture with it own characteristics and traditions Media: TV, newspaper, magazines, radio, the internet and social networks 2. What are the 4 categories of socialization? Primary Socialization: the process of learning the basic skills needed to survive in society (like hygiene, eating with utensils, appropriate dress, how to use language) Secondary Socialization: The process of learning how to behave appropriately in group situations. Anticipatory Socialization: The ability we develop to think ahead and act accordingly. Resocialization: The process by which negative behavior is transformed into socially acceptable behavior. 3. Who was Genie and what can we learn from her? She was a feral child. 4. What are the 6 agents of Socialization? Distinguish between primary and secondary PRIMARY Family: responsible for meeting an individual's most basic needs and providing the beliefs needed to survive in this world. Shapes behavior throughout life. SECONDARY School: the first agent to force us to deal with formal rules. Involves the manifest function and latent function. Teaches us how to speak formally and how to respect authority, preparing us for the workplace. Peer Groups: A social Group whose members are about the same age and share similar interests and social position. Peer groups give us the opportunity to do things and talk about things that are discouraged in the family E.g. Vaping, underage drinking, etc. The Workplace:Socialize us with messages about punctuality, appropriate dress, and respect for authority. We learn proper ways of dealing with colleagues, customers and competitors. Media: Many developmental consequences – time spend watching TV and playing video games means time away from others, interacting and building social skills and relationships. Target us through advertising. 11 Religion: influences the socialization process as most religions have moral codes and set a standard of behavior they expect of their members. Religion communicates BELIEFS shared by a group. Total Institutions: intended to wipe out the results of prior socialization; emphasis is on removing individuality and replacing it with a common group identity E.g., boot camps for young offenders, cults, asylums, prisons, etc. 5. Why are life stages key in determining social roles and identities? It is important to remember that not everyone passes through all stages as these stages have been altered by greater life choices in career and lifestyle, socioeconomic circumstances and cultural background. Childhood Adolescence Adulthood Old age Life stages are important for determining social roles and identities because they mark changes in a person's skills, responsibilities, and expectations. These changes can lead to new opportunities and challenges, which help people develop a sense of self and their place in society. 6. What are the 4 ways we can form our social identity? Social identity is the way you define yourself to the world around you. We from our social identity from: 1. Situation view of behaviour: the belief that the individuals behaviour changes from encounter to encounter 2. Personality view of behaviour: the belief that the individual shows consistency in behaviour from one situation to another 3. Role identity: the behaviour an individual displays in order to fulfil the expectations of a specific role (for example, a student) 4. Group-based identity: the development of self-concept and identity through membership in a social group with whom the individual shares similar values and beliefs 7. What are the 2 types of roles? Provide examples of each 1. Ascribed roles: roles that are assigned, with little or no choice on the part of the individual (ex. Being a brother) 2. Achieved roles: social roles that are chosen and accomplished with some effort (ex. Achieving your dream career) 8. Why do social norms and roles exist Social roles are expectations attached to particular social positions. Social norms are unwritten rules about how to behave, they provide us with an expected idea of how to behave in a particular social group or culture. Social roles exist because: They bring order to society by regulating behaviour They ensure that in a complex society, various jobs get done 12  They provide opportunities and privileges They impose limitations and responsibilities 9. What are gender roles? Gender is one of the many roles an individual is expected to enact throughout his or her lifetime Gender is internalized at a young age from our primary agent of socialization - the family - and accepted norms based on masculinity and femininity 10. What factors have led to a shift in traditional gender roles? Factors such as: Educational opportunities for women Dual-earner families Access to contraceptives 11. What is social inequality? What are the 4 conditions of social inequality? Social inequality is the inability of some people and the success of others to attain access to the privileges, rewards or assets of society Conditions for social inequality: 12. Explain the power and influence that groups have on society and its members Groups have expectations of how we should and shouldn't behave Most groups rely on roles, norms, and sanctions to shape the behaviour of their members Established guidelines for appropriate behaviour are called norms, which are used to keep order and ensure a certain level of behaviour 13. What are sanctions and how are they used? Provide an example of informal and formal sanctions. Sanctions are typically used to encourage members to conform to group expectations Informal sanction - a word of caution, or a pat on the back Formal sanction - expulsion from the group 14. Explain how crowds form collective behaviour Collective behavior: any unified behaviour in a group 13 15. What is conformity and how can it be both positive and negative? Conformity is the process by which an individual will alter or change his or her thoughts, feelings, and behaviour to meet the expectations of a group or authority figure Positive: Negative: Being coerced into a specific form of The fear of being left out is a powerful behaviour that is detrimental to motivator for an individual to change ourselves OR others their behaviour to imitate others Ex. Theft or violent acts committed in Ex. Recycling order to maintain membership in a gang 16. What are some factors that affect conformity Group size Self-esteem Status of members or group Public vs private response 17. What are breaching experiments and why are they used? How is Asch’s experiment a example of a breaching experiment? Breaching experiments studied the results of intentionally breaking a social norm and then analyzed people's reactions 18. What is groupthink and how does it work? Groupthink: refers to the effects of collective pressure on the decision-making abilities of individual members of a group Groups value independent thinkers –however, on some occasions pressure for a group to arrive at a consensus may silence opposing opinions – this is the process of groupthink! It is SO POWERFUL that individuals in the group prefer to remain silent that stir up conflict by stating their opinion. 19. What are the high costs of conflict? (there are 4) 20. What are the 5 social institutions? (Provide examples for each) 1. Family 2. Religion 3. Education 4. Government 5. Economy 14 21. What are the 4 functions of social institutions? 1. Shape values and beliefs 2. Maintain order 3. Help society function efficiently 22. What are the goals of total institutions? 1. Wipe out the results of prior socialization 2. Remove individuality 3. Replace individuality with a common group identity UNIT 3: Anthropology Terms and Concepts TERM/CONCEPT DEFINITION Out of Africa Theory Charles Darwin suggested that humans first evolved in Africa. Evolution the gradual development of something, especially from a simple to a more complex form Lucy Donald Johanson found a skeleton in Ethiopia (40% complete) The Skeleton was named “Lucy” Part of the Australopithecus Afarensis human ancestor that walked the earth 3.2 million years ago She was an adult female & Bipedal Rites of Passage Mark significant changes in life or status within a culture Religion Cultural beliefs of the spiritual or supernatural (all of things that are outside known laws of nature) Supernatural Phenomena or entities that exist beyond the laws of nature and human understanding, often associated with the divine, magical, or otherworldly. Patrilineal Only the father’s ancestors are recognized as family. Matrilineal Ancestry is traced only through the mother’s line. Bilineal Recognized that they are related to both their mother’s and father’s family and trace their ancestry in both lines. Lineage A group of individuals tracing descent from a common ancestor. Kinship Is a term that refers to the connections and the relationships between people who are related by blood, marriage, or adoption. 15  Clan Monogamy A relationship where an individual has one partner. Polygamy Marriage that involves multiple partners. Polygyny Marriage between one husband and multiple wives. Multiculturalism Having lots of different cultures living together in one place. Assimilation Person connects mostly with the dominant culture Race How we group people based on what they look like (ex. skin color or facial features). Ethnicity Based on shared cultural characteristics. Bicultural Identity A sense of oneself as being strongly rooted in two cultures Symbolic Ethnicity Ethnic identity based on an emotional connection to a real or imagined past rather than daily experience. Prejudice Preconceived opinion that is not based on reason or actual experience. Discrimination The unjust or prejudicial treatment of different categories of people, especially on the grounds of ethnicity, age, sex, or disability. Content/Theory 1. Evolution: Different stages 1. Ardipithecus Ramidus: a. Found in ethiopia b. Lived on earth 4.4 million years ago c. About 3.5 ft tall, weight about 110 d. Showed signs of transition between walking on quads to bipedal 2. Australopithecus Anamensis a. Found in Northern Kenya b. Lived on earth 4.2 million years ago c. Bipedal d. Forearms suggested they were tree climbers 3. Australopithecus Afarensis a. Found in Eastern Africa b. Lived on earth 3.8 million years ago c. Bipedal d. 3.5 ft, weight 65 lbs 4. Homo Habilis a. Found in Eastern and Southern Africa by John Leakey b. Lived on earth 2.4-1.4 million years ago c. Known as the “Handy Man” as they were tool makers d. 3-4 ft tall, weighed 70lbs 5. Homo Erectus 16  a. Found in Africa and Asia b. Lived on earth 1.8 million years ago c. Known as the first “fire makers” and “upright man” d. 4-6 ft tall, weight 18-150 lbs e. Walked and ran long distances 6. Homo Neanderthalensis a. Found in Germany 1856, and Europe and eastern Asia b. 200,000-28,000 years ago c. Large brains, shorter/stockier for cold climates d. Known as skilled hunters, lived in shelters, made clothing and tools e. Symbolic and intelligent behaviour 7. Homo Sapiens a. Lived 200,000 years ago b. Known as the “wise man” c. Beginning of first civilizations d. Vocal system and religion developed e. Brain size of a modern human 2. Explain the main contributions made by the following individuals in Anthropology: Raymond Dart, Mary/Louis/Richard Leakey, Charles Darwin, Jane Goodall, Dian Fossey, Birute Galdikas, Ruth Benedict, Franz Boas, Margaret Mead, Derek Freeman,Bronislaw Malinowski, Noam Chomsky Anthropologist Field/Branch Contribution Bronislaw Ethnology Pioneered the method of participant observation in his 1915 Malinowski study of the Trobriand Islanders in the South Pacific. Uncovered the deeper meanings behind rituals, beliefs and social structures, laying the foundation for modern ethnology. Emphasized the importance of understanding cultures from within, rather than just observing from the outside. Noam Chomsky Structural Known as the father of modern structural linguistics, best known Linguistics for developing the theory of universal grammar: that all human children are born with internal, universal rules for grammar and that they apply these rules as they learn their mother tongue. Donald Evolution Found a skeleton in Ethiopia (40% complete) named Lucy. Johanson Louis Leakey Evolution Found the homo habilis in eastern and southern Africa in 1960 Charles Darwin Human Founded the Out of Africa theory, suggesting that humans first Variation evolved in Africa. Established the concept of Natural Selection to explain how animals and plants evolved. Raymond Dart Evolution Found a skull in South Africa that looked more human than ape, providing proof for the Out of Africa theory. In 1924, he identified 17  the first fossil of Australopithecus africanus. Louis & Mary Physical Found further proof of the Out of Africa theory by finding fossils of Leakey Anthropology hominins and an Australopithecus Africanus skull. Helped to start the primatology school, and generated much interest and publicity for the field of human origins. Jane Goodall Primatology Her research on chimpanzees transformed our understanding of animal behaviour. Living with them in Tanzania allowed her to reveal their complex social structures and tool-making abilities. Dian Fossey Primatology Went to Rwanda to observe gorillas Birute Galdikas Primatology ` Franz Boas Ethnology Known as the “Father of American Anthropology”, emphasized cultural diversity and the importance of field work. Shaped modern anthropology, highlighting the importance of cultural relativism. Margaret Mead Cultural Best known for her study of Samoan adolescent girls, she was Anthropologists interested in examining whether stresses during adolescence were caused by adolescence itself or by society. She concluded that sex roles were determined by culture, not biology. Derek Freeman Ethnology Concluded, based on his own research and interviews, that Samoa actually had very restrictive sexual practices. 3. What are some common rites of passage in Canada? Graduation ceremonies: These mark the transition from high school to college or university Turning 18: This age signifies legal adulthood in Canada and is often celebrated as a rite of passage 4. Explain the three stage process of many rites of passage 1. Separation: separated from the rest of society and from one’s original status 2. Transition: also called “liminal stage”, can last hours, days, months of years. one is becoming their new self and learning their new role. 3. Incorporation and Reintegration: reintegration into society with a new status, often marked by formal recognition and acceptance. 5. Compare male and female rites of passage Male rites often focus on physical or emotional challenges to prepare boys for adulthood and their roles within society. Female rites often focus on preparing for womanhood, marriage and family responsibilities. 6. How do cultural expectations of education and career influence your sense of self, male or female? 18 Cultural expectations of education and career can influence a person's sense of self by shaping their career choices, self-esteem, and personal relationships. These expectations can also limit opportunities and perpetuate inequalities. (gender norms, gender stereotypes and gender roles) 7. How does culture influence/affect gender? FEMALE MALE We evaluate and assess female identity What it means to be a man (and how everyday, in subtle and subtle ways. masculinity is defined) varies enormously There are expectations about how a across many cultures. There are some tasks woman should look, act, and behave that, historically, were predominantly done and what she should want. by men in all societies, such as hunting, ○ Assumptions are made about mining, woodworking, and warfare. women based on the way they As societies industrialize and become part dress as "girly" or "sporty." of the global market, divisions of labour Many people make choices based on change and these distinctions of gender these expectations and strive to meet shift. the ideals set out by their culture. Gender roles in Canada are changing with Western culture assumes that respect to child care. women are more nurturing, Traditionally, women were solely responsible emotional, and caring than men. for the care of babies and young children. But with the increasing number of women in the workforce and support from the Canadian government, men are taking on increasingly more responsibility for child care in their families. 8. What three functions for society do religious beliefs serve? 1) gives meaning and purpose to life 2) Provides and maintains community 3) Social control/morality 9. How is marriage different in different cultures (Use specific case studies from class) Anthropologists generally agree that marriage defines social relationships to provide for the survival and socialization of children. Arranged marriages are marriages set up by someone other than the people getting married. 10. Explain the difference between race and ethnicity Race: a social construct that has historically been used to classify human beings according to physical or biological characteristics Ethnicity: something a person acquires or ascribes to and refers to a shared culture, such as language, practices, and beliefs 11. Describe the two theoretical perspectives on ethnicity (stage-model and acculturation theory) J.S Phinney’s Stage Model Theories 19  1. Unexamined Ethnic Identity: An individual does not see a difference between himself or herself and the dominant society 2. Ethnic Identity Search: This stage begins with an event in a person’s life that causes that person to question whether he or she fits into the dominant society 3. Ethnic Identity Achievement: In the final stage, an individual resolves all previous conflicts and forms an identity that includes elements of both (or all) of his or her cultures Acculturation Theory Assimilation: this means they connect mostly with the dominant culture Integration: they mix both their culture and the dominant one Separation: they push away from the dominant culture Marginalization: they don’t strongly identify with either culture 12. Describe some of the challenges faced by Canadian Cultural groups UNIT 4: Psychology Terms and Concepts TERM/CONCEPT DEFINITION Self-concept Our sense of who we are based on our ideas about strengths, weaknesses, values, beliefs, hopes, dreams, achievements, and disappointments. Fixation The continued focus on an earlier stage of psychosocial development due to an unresolved conflict in a previous stage. Oedipus complex (boys) Unconscious sexual desires towards mother, father are competition. Electra complex (girls) Unconscious sexual desires towards father and hostility towards her mother. Heredity Physical characteristics and aspects of personality and behaviour that are passed down genetically from your relatives. Environmental factors Forces that nurture our personality as we grow and develop. 20 Personality the combination of characteristics or qualities that form an individual's distinctive character. Factor analysis Gender the characteristics of women, men, girls and boys that are socially constructed Sex the sum of the structural, functional, and sometimes behavioral characteristics of organisms that distinguish males and females Gender identity a person's innate sense of their gender Gender role the role or behavior considered to be appropriate to a particular gender as determined by prevailing cultural norms. Social Learning Theory of Gender Gender of Schema Theory explains how children learn about gender roles and identities. They observe and learn from the world around them, creating mental "maps" of what is considered masculine and feminine. These "maps" then influence how they perceive the world and behave. Gender Intensification Hypothesis beginning in adolescence, girls and boys face increased pressure to conform to culturally sanctioned gender roles. Neurosis a mental illness resulting in high levels of anxiety, unreasonable fears and behaviour and, often, a need to repeat actions for no reason Simple phobia centre around a particular object, animal, situation or activity. They often develop during childhood or adolescence and may become less severe as you get older. Social phobia When everyday interactions cause significant (social anxiety) anxiety, self-consciousness and embarrassment. Agoraphobia fearing and avoiding places or situations that might cause panic and feelings of being trapped, helpless or embarrassed. OCD uncontrollable and recurring thoughts (Obsessive Compulsive Disorder) (obsessions), repetitive and excessive behaviors (compulsions), or both. 21  PTSD a mental and behavioral disorder that develops (post traumatic stress disorder) from experiencing a traumatic event Content/Theory 1. Where does our sense of self come from Sociologists see the development of the self as a result of the interaction between an individual and others Anthropologists see the concept of “self” is not limited to one individual. One’s self is shared Psychologists see the development of self as an individual progress, that can be influence by our childhood development 2. Explain Frued’s structure of personality development (5 stage psychosexual theory) STAGE DESCRIPTION STAGE 1: THE ORAL STAGE ▪This stage takes place from birth - 18 months ▪In this stage pleasure is found in: ▪Oral gratification: ▪Bottle feeding, nursing ▪Placing things in the mouth (chewing and biting) ▪A conflict at this stage occurs with a child being weaned off the mother’s breast ▪Can lead to nail biting, smoking and overeating STAGE 2: THE ANAL STAGE ▪This stage takes place from 18 months - 3 years ▪In this stage pleasure is found in: ▪Learning to control your bowels ▪Toilet training ▪A conflict at this stage occurs with a child potty trained ▪Can lead to concern with perfection and obsessive cleanliness or extreme messiness STAGE 3: THE PHALLIC STAGE ▪This stage takes place from 3 - 6 years ▪In this stage pleasure is found in: ▪Awareness of sexual organs ▪Love-hate relationship with the same-sex parent ▪This is the most important stage in Freud’s model (according to Freud). ▪A conflict at this stage occurs with the Oedipus and Electra 22  complexes... STAGE 4: THE LATENCY ▪This stage takes place from age 6 years - puberty STAGE ▪At this stage, sexual drive is dormant (inactive); sexual concerns are unimportant ▪Energy is poured into asexual pursuits like school and same-gender friendships ▪A person usually has few opposite sex friends STAGE 5: THE GENITAL STAGE ▪This stage takes place from puberty onward ▪A person becomes interested in dating and marriage ▪Directs sexual urges toward members of the opposite sex ▪The more emotions linked to sexuality that a child has at this stage, the greater his or her capacity will be to develop normal relationships with the opposite sex 3. Outline Piaget’s Cognitive Development Theory (4 stages) STAGE DESCRIPTION Sensorimotor (0-2 years) The infant expires the world through direct sensory and motor contact. Object permanence and separation anxiety develop during this stage. Preoperational (2-6 years) The child uses symbols (words and images) to represent objects but does not reason logically. The child also has the ability to pretend. During this stage, the child is egocentric. Concrete operational (7-12 The child can think logically about concrete objects and can thus years) add and subtract. The child also understands conservation. Formal operational (12 years - The adolescent can reason abstractly and think in hypothetical adult) terms. 4. Outline Erikson’s Life Stages of Development (8 stages) 1. Trust vs. mistrust: birth to one year 2. Autonomy vs. shame and doubt: 1-3 years 3. Initiative vs. guilt: 3-6 years 4. Industry vs. inferiority: 6-12 years 5. Ego identity vs. role diffusion: adolescence (12-20) 6. Intimacy vs. isolation: Young adulthood (20 - 40) 7. Generativity vs. stagnation: Middle adulthood (40 - 65) 8. Ego integrity vs. despair: Late adulthood (old age) 5. What factors contribute to the development of self? 23 Hereditary (nature) Hereditary - characteristics that are inherited through genetics Ex. physical appearance, reflexes, energy level Environment (nurture) Environmental factors - forces that nurture our personality as we grow and develop Ex. culture(family), early conditioning, norms, friends and social groups 6. Explain the nature-nurture debate Nature-Nurture debate: does nature (inherited, biological characteristics) or nurture (learned, environmental forces) have more of an impact on personality development? 7. Outline the importance of twin studies to understand the influence of environment and heredity Psychologists study both identical and fraternal twins to understand the influence of environment and heredity Twins that were raised apart are used to determine what aspects of personality are inherited (because they were raised in different environments, similarities could only be from genetics) 8. How do our family, friends and the media influence our personality and behaviour? 9. Describe the 3 ways in which parents influence the emotional and behaviour responses of their children Direct This involves direct communication between the parent and child. It includes the transfer of knowledge, Interaction such as naming an unfamiliar object in a book. Parents’ rewarding of desired behaviours and punishment of behaviours that are undesired are also part of this influence. Emotional By the age of four or five, children unconsciously believe that some of their parents' attributes, including Identity personality and characters are their own. For example, a child whose father is shy may believe that he or she is also timid. This tendency is stronger among children who have unique physical features that are similar to those of a parent. Children also identify with the family's class and ethnic or religious group. These identifications have a greater influence if parents act on what they say. A child is more likely to value the arts if his or her parents both encourage a love for the arts in their child and dem demonstrate an interest in them, which often reflects the class of the family. Family A more symbolic form of identification occurs through the telling of stories or myths of particularly Stories accomplished family members. For example, a parent may tell the story of Grandma who started her own business or of cousin Johnny who competed in the Olympics. On hearing the recounting of a story, a child feels a sense of pride due to the biological relation he or she has to these successful family members. 10. Describe the behaviour outcome of each parenting style: Authoritative, Authoritarian, Permissive, and Neglectful Parenting Style Children’s Behaviour Authoritative Children are well behaved and do well at school, are emotionally healthy, and are socially adept. 24  Authoritarian Children are relatively well behaved, their social skills are not as strong, and they are more likely to suffer from anxiety, depression, and poor self-esteem. Permissive Children are not as high achievers at school and have good social skills, higher self-esteem, and lower anxiety and depression rates, but they are more likely to show problematic behaviour such as drug use. Neglectful Children are likely to have low academic achievement and low self-esteem. 11. How can the family environment contribute to the following issues: eating disorders, criminal behaviour, and runaway teens? Eating Disorders: A negative family environment can be a contributing factor, as well as social and cultural pressures, hormonal abnormalities, and even genetic factors. Parental views of weight are also a factor. Criminal Behaviour: Problems that exist in the family environment can have negative effects on children. Studies indicate that the children of parents who are violent and have been arrested are more likely to be violent and have encounters with the law, and those who grow up in an abusive home or are neglected are 50 percent more likely to commit crimes. Runaway Teens: According to police, 56 percent of teens said they were "thrown out" by their parents, while 47 percent said leaving home was their own decision. Not surprisingly, most children who run away are leaving unhappy homes. Other factors include parental violence, drug and alcohol abuse, negligence, and poor relationships with parents. Some children feel that their home is not a safe place and believe the only option they have is to leave. 12. Compare the psychological influence of friends vs. crowds Friends Crowds Similar interests We tend to think others make decisions the same way we do, and when they don’t, they are That people instinctively change their behaviour to unacceptable or defective in some way conform to what is expected by others Within a crowd, people come to think as one, in a High self-monitors: people who change their matter that is different from what each person behaviour to suit the situation and use cues to believes individually decide how to act Personality is hardly altered by crowds Low self-monitors: people who act according to their "true self" and do not behave in ways that go against this. 13. What are the 4 effects of TV on the development of children? 1. Obesity 25  2. Increase in violent behaviour 3. Poor academic performance - specifically in reading 4. Problems with social skills 14. What is the gender intensification hypothesis? What is the social learning theory of gender? What is gender schema theory? Provide examples of each. States that psychological behavioural differences between boys and girls become greater during early adolescence because of increased socialization pressures to conform to the traditional masculine and feminine gender roles. For example, a boy feels pressured to play sports because men in his family have pressured him to. Children develop schemas (or concepts) of how each gender should act or think through language, dress, toys, and social learning. Girls automatically assume that all girls wear makeup because it is common for girls to wear makeup. They then feel pressured to wear makeup. 15. Explain both social and biological influence on gender Biological influences include being assigned with a gender at birth based on genitalia, influenced by chromosomes. Females have XX chromosomes, men have XY chromosomes. Social factors shape how individuals understand and express their gender. Parents often unintentionally reinforce gender stereotypes by the way they raise their children. 16. Explain the differences between neuroses and psychoses Neurotic disorders: emotional disorder that can have physical, mental, or psychological symptoms Psychosis conditions: when an individual loses touch with the real world, these individuals have their own perception of reality 17. What are some psychotic disorders and some neurotic disorders? Neurotic: Phobias Generalized anxiety disorder Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) Post-traumatic stress disorder Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) Psychotic: Schizophrenia Bipolar disorder Dissociative identity disorder (multiple personality disorder) 18. How do motivation, attitude and social thinking affect behaviour? Attitude - attitude, social thinking, motivation and mental health 26