APES Semester 1 Final Review PDF

Unit 1: An Introduction to Environmental Science Key Terms and Definitions Environment: The sum of all biotic (living) and abiotic (non-living) factors that affect an organism or ecological system. Biotic Factor: Any living component of an ecosystem (e.g., plants, animals, bacteria)....

Unit 1: An Introduction to Environmental Science Key Terms and Definitions Environment: The sum of all biotic (living) and abiotic (non-living) factors that affect an organism or ecological system. Biotic Factor: Any living component of an ecosystem (e.g., plants, animals, bacteria). Abiotic Factor: Any non-living component of an ecosystem (e.g., sunlight, temperature, water). Environmental Science: The interdisciplinary study of how humans interact with the environment. Environmentalism: A social movement aimed at protecting the natural world. Culture: The collective beliefs, values, and practices that influence human behavior and interaction with the environment. Stewardship: Responsible management and care for the environment. Anthropocentric: A worldview that considers humans as the central and most important element of existence. Biocentric: A worldview that values all living organisms and considers their well-being. Ecocentric: A worldview that values entire ecosystems, including both living and non-living components. Utilitarian: Emphasizes practical and economic benefits of resources. Preservation: Protecting the environment from human interference. Conservation: Managing natural resources to ensure their long-term sustainability. Environmental Ethics: The moral principles guiding human interaction with the environment. Renewable Resource: A resource replenished naturally over short periods (e.g., sunlight, wind). Nonrenewable Resource: A resource that forms slowly and is finite (e.g., fossil fuels, minerals). Nomadic Lifestyle: A way of life where people move frequently in search of food and resources. Agricultural Revolution: The shift from nomadic lifestyles to settled farming, increasing resource use. Industrial Revolution: A period of industrialization that greatly increased energy use and resource demand. Consumption: The use of goods and resources by individuals or societies. Ecological Footprint: A measure of human demand on Earth's ecosystems. Independent Variable: The variable manipulated in an experiment. Dependent Variable: The variable measured in an experiment. Qualitative Data: Non-numerical data describing qualities or characteristics. Quantitative Data: Numerical data describing quantities or measurements. Manipulative Experiment: An experiment where the researcher actively changes the independent variable. Controlled Experiment: An experiment with a control group and experimental group(s) to isolate variable effects.  Control: A baseline in an experiment used for comparison. Natural Experiment: Observation of natural events without manipulation by researchers. Laboratory Experiment: Experiments conducted in a controlled indoor environment. Field Experiment: Experiments conducted in natural settings. Blind Experiment: Participants do not know which group they are in to prevent bias. Double-Blind Experiment: Both researchers and participants are unaware of group assignments to eliminate bias. Experimental Bias: When researchers’ expectations influence results. Correlation: A relationship between two variables that does not imply causation. Model: A simplified representation of a system or phenomenon. Peer Review: Evaluation of scientific work by other experts in the field. Skepticism: Questioning and critically evaluating scientific claims. Environmental Justice: The fair distribution of environmental benefits and burdens. Key Concepts and Explanations 1. Biotic and Abiotic Factors ○ Example: In a forest, biotic factors include trees, deer, and fungi, while abiotic factors include sunlight, soil, and water. 2. Goals of Environmental Science vs. Environmentalism ○ Environmental Science seeks to understand interactions and solve problems using data and research. ○ Environmentalism advocates for protecting nature based on ethical and moral grounds. 3. Interdisciplinary Nature of Environmental Science ○ Combines biology, chemistry, physics, geology, and social sciences to address environmental issues. 4. Requirements for Life ○ Basic Needs: Energy (sunlight), nutrients, water, and suitable temperature ranges. 5. Exxon Valdez Oil Spill ○ Event: 1989 oil spill in Alaska, releasing 11 million gallons of crude oil. ○ Cleanup: Used chemical dispersants, hot water washing, and bioremediation to break down oil. 6. Scientific Method ○ Steps: Observation, hypothesis formation, experimentation, data analysis, conclusion. ○ Example: Testing the effect of fertilizer on plant growth. 7. Variables in Experiments ○ Independent Variable: Fertilizer type. ○ Dependent Variable: Plant height. 8. Control and Experiment Types ○ Control Trial: A plant group receiving no fertilizer. ○ Importance: Ensures results are due to the independent variable. 9. Culture and Worldview ○ Examples: Western cultures may prioritize economic growth (anthropocentric), while indigenous cultures may focus on harmony with nature (ecocentric).  10. Preservation vs. Conservation Preservation: Keeping ecosystems untouched (e.g., wilderness areas). Conservation: Sustainable use of resources (e.g., forestry practices). 11. Tragedy of the Commons Garrett Hardin’s Analogy: Overgrazing on shared pasture leads to resource depletion. Real-World Example: Overfishing in oceans. 12. Easter Island Case Study Event: Resource overuse led to deforestation and societal collapse. Lesson: Importance of sustainable resource management. 13. Revolutions and Resource Use Agricultural Revolution: Increased food production and population growth. Industrial Revolution: Shift to fossil fuels, industrial processes, and urbanization. 14. Graphing Experimental Data X-axis: Independent variable. Y-axis: Dependent variable. 15. Science vs. Pseudoscience Science: Based on empirical evidence and peer review. Pseudoscience: Lacks scientific rigor and reproducibility. Unit 2 Study Guide: Earth Systems and Cycles Part 1: Biology/Chemistry/Physics Review Key Terms Chemistry: The study of matter, its properties, and how it interacts with energy and other matter. Biology: The study of living organisms and their interactions with the environment. Ecology: The study of relationships between organisms and their environment. Matter: Anything that has mass and occupies space; made up of atoms. Law of Conservation of Matter: Matter cannot be created or destroyed, only transformed. Chemical Reaction: A process that changes substances into new substances with different properties. Organic Compound: Molecules containing carbon and hydrogen; often associated with living organisms. Hydrocarbon: Organic compounds made up entirely of carbon and hydrogen, such as methane. Combustion Reaction: A chemical reaction where a hydrocarbon reacts with oxygen to produce carbon dioxide and water, releasing energy. Endothermic: A reaction that absorbs energy from its surroundings. Exothermic: A reaction that releases energy to its surroundings. Metabolism: All chemical reactions that occur within living organisms to maintain life. Population: A group of individuals of the same species living in a particular area. Community: All living organisms in a particular area, interacting as a system.  Bioremediation: The use of organisms, such as bacteria, to clean up pollutants in the environment. Ecosystem: A community of organisms interacting with their abiotic environment. Energy: The capacity to do work or produce change. Work: The application of force over a distance. Kinetic Energy: Energy of motion. Potential Energy: Stored energy due to position or structure. Chemical Energy: Energy stored in chemical bonds. First Law of Thermodynamics: Energy cannot be created or destroyed, only transformed. Second Law of Thermodynamics: Energy transformations increase entropy (disorder). Entropy: Measure of disorder or randomness in a system. Photosynthesis: Process where producers convert sunlight into chemical energy (glucose). Cellular Respiration: Process where organisms break down glucose to release stored energy. Heat of Combustion: The amount of heat released when a substance is burned. Specific Heat: The heat required to raise the temperature of one gram of a substance by one degree Celsius. Joule: A unit of energy in the SI system. Calorie: A unit of energy often used in food and chemistry. Molar Mass: The mass of one mole of a substance. Key Concepts Law of Conservation of Matter: Understand how it applies to nutrient cycles (e.g., carbon, nitrogen) and waste issues like landfill buildup. Chemical Reactions: Recognize reactants, products, and energy changes involved. Water Properties: High heat capacity, surface tension, solvent abilities, and density changes. Organic Compounds: Examples include carbohydrates, proteins, and hydrocarbons. Combustion Reactions: Hydrocarbons produce CO₂, H₂O, and energy when combusted. Bioremediation: Microorganisms breaking down oil (e.g., Exxon Valdez spill cleanup). Energy Storage and Release: ATP as a storage molecule in living systems. Photosynthesis vs. Cellular Respiration: ○ Photosynthesis: 6CO₂ + 6H₂O + sunlight → C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂ ○ Respiration: C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂ → 6CO₂ + 6H₂O + energy. Hydrothermal Vent Producers: Chemosynthesis using hydrogen sulfide instead of sunlight. Geothermal/Tidal Energy: Energy from Earth’s heat and gravitational interactions with the moon. Experimental Calculations: Heat of combustion from experimental data. Part 2: The Geosphere Key Terms Atmosphere: The layer of gases surrounding Earth. Hydrosphere: All water on Earth, including liquid, ice, and vapor. Geosphere: Solid parts of Earth, including rocks, soil, and landforms. Biosphere: All ecosystems and living organisms on Earth. Core: The innermost layer of Earth, composed of iron and nickel. Mantle: The layer of hot, semi-solid rock between the core and crust. Crust: The outermost layer of Earth, including continental and oceanic crust. Asthenosphere: The semi-fluid layer of the mantle that tectonic plates move on. Lithosphere: The rigid outer layer of Earth, including the crust and upper mantle. Convection Current: Circular movement of heat in the mantle, driving plate tectonics. Tectonic Plate: Large, rigid sections of Earth’s lithosphere. Divergent Boundary: Plates move apart, forming ridges and new crust. Convergent Boundary: Plates collide, forming trenches, mountains, or volcanic arcs. Transform Boundary: Plates slide past one another, causing earthquakes. Rift: A gap or crack formed by divergent plates. Ridge: Elevated area formed by magma at divergent boundaries. Trench: A deep depression in the ocean floor at convergent boundaries. Magma: Molten rock beneath Earth’s surface. Lava: Molten rock that reaches Earth’s surface. Subduction: One plate slides beneath another at a convergent boundary. Hot Spot: A plume of magma creating volcanic islands away from plate boundaries. Pangaea: A supercontinent that existed millions of years ago. Earthquake: Sudden shaking caused by movement along faults. Tsunami: A large ocean wave caused by underwater earthquakes or volcanic eruptions. Mass Wasting: Downhill movement of soil and rock due to gravity. Mineral: Naturally occurring, inorganic solid with a defined structure and composition. Rock: Aggregates of minerals. Ore: Rock containing valuable minerals. Rock Cycle: The processes of rock formation, breakdown, and reformation. Igneous Rock: Formed from cooling magma or lava. ○ Intrusive: Cooled slowly inside Earth (e.g., granite). ○ Extrusive: Cooled quickly on the surface (e.g., basalt). Sedimentary Rock: Formed from sediment compaction and cementation. Metamorphic Rock: Altered by heat and pressure. Weathering: Breaking down rocks by physical or chemical processes. ○ Physical Weathering: Breaking down without chemical change (e.g., freeze-thaw). ○ Chemical Weathering: Altering chemical structure (e.g., acid rain on limestone). Key Concepts Earth’s Layers: Core, mantle, crust; each has distinct properties and composition. Plate Boundaries: ○ Divergent: Formation of new crust (e.g., Mid-Atlantic Ridge). ○ Convergent: Subduction, mountain building, volcanic arcs.  ○ Transform: Earthquakes along faults (e.g., San Andreas Fault). Tsunamis: Caused by underwater seismic activity. Seismically Active Regions: ○ Global: Pacific Ring of Fire. ○ US: Western states like California. Richter Scale: Logarithmic scale measuring earthquake energy. Volcanic Eruptions: Lava, ash, and gas impact ecosystems and human activity. Human Impact on Mass Wasting: Activities like deforestation and construction increase risk. Rock Types: ○ Identify characteristics and processes of formation. Weathering Processes: Physical vs. chemical effects on rocks. Acid Rain: Dissolution of calcium carbonate in limestone by acidic water. Unit 3 Study Guide: Climate and Biomes Part 1: Atmosphere, Weather, and Climate Key Terms 1. Atmosphere: The layer of gases surrounding Earth, held in place by gravity. It provides oxygen, regulates temperature, and protects life from harmful solar radiation. 2. Troposphere: The lowest atmospheric layer, extending up to about 10 km, where weather occurs and temperature decreases with altitude. 3. Stratosphere: Above the troposphere, from about 10-50 km, containing the ozone layer. Temperature increases with altitude due to ozone absorption of UV radiation. 4. Mesosphere: Extends from 50-85 km above Earth. It's the coldest layer and where meteors burn up. 5. Thermosphere: The uppermost layer, extending from 85 km upward. Temperature rises significantly, and the auroras occur here. 6. Tropopause: The boundary between the troposphere and stratosphere, characterized by a halt in the temperature decrease. 7. Stratopause: The boundary between the stratosphere and mesosphere, where temperature stops increasing. 8. Mesopause: The boundary between the mesosphere and thermosphere, where temperatures are at their minimum. 9. Weather: The short-term atmospheric conditions in a specific area, such as temperature, humidity, and precipitation. 10. Climate: The average weather patterns over a long period in a specific area. 11. Atmospheric Pressure (Air Pressure, Barometric Pressure): The force exerted by air molecules on Earth's surface, decreasing with altitude. 12. Relative Humidity: The percentage of water vapor in the air relative to the maximum amount it can hold at a given temperature.  13. Convection Cell: A large-scale pattern of air movement caused by differential heating, with warm air rising and cool air sinking. 14. Convection Current: Small-scale air movements within convection cells. 15. Hadley Cell: A tropical convection cell between 0° and 30° latitude, responsible for trade winds and tropical rainforests. 16. Ferrel Cell: The convection cell between 30° and 60° latitude, linked to westerlies and temperate climates. 17. Polar Cell: Convection cell between 60° latitude and the poles, driving cold, dry polar climates. 18. Doldrums: Low-pressure zones near the equator with minimal wind. 19. Trade Winds: Steady winds from east to west between the equator and 30° latitude. 20. Westerlies: Winds blowing from west to east between 30° and 60° latitude. 21. Jet Stream: Fast-flowing, high-altitude air currents that influence weather. 22. Rain Shadow: A dry area on the leeward side of a mountain, caused by moist air rising and losing moisture on the windward side. Key Concepts 1. Earth’s Atmosphere Over Time: Early Earth had little oxygen, mainly CO2 and methane. Photosynthetic organisms later increased oxygen levels, enabling life to evolve. 2. Layers of the Atmosphere: Troposphere (weather), Stratosphere (ozone layer), Mesosphere (cold, meteors), Thermosphere (auroras). 3. Composition of the Atmosphere: 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen,