APES Chapter 6 PDF

‭ 18‬ ‭The‬‭Abundance‬‭and‬‭Distribution‬‭of‬‭Populations‬ ‭12-5‬ M ‭Levels‬‭of‬‭Complexity‬ ‭1)‬ ‭Individual:‬‭Survival‬‭and‬‭reproduction,‬‭natural‬‭selection‬ ‭2)‬ ‭Population:‬‭dynamics‬‭and‬‭evolution‬ ‭3)‬ ‭Community:‬‭interactions‬‭among‬‭and‬‭between‬‭species‬ ‭4)‬ ‭Ecosystem:‬‭flow‬‭of‬‭matter‬‭and‬‭energy,‬‭cycling‬‭of‬‭nutrients‬ ‭5)‬ ‭Biosphere:‬‭global‬‭processes,‬‭movement‬‭of‬‭air,‬‭water,‬‭and‬‭heat‬ ‭Populations‬‭-individuals‬‭that‬‭die‬‭and‬‭are‬‭born‬‭and‬‭can‬‭move‬‭from‬‭one‬‭population‬‭to‬‭another‬ ‭‬ ‭Basic‬‭Characteristics‬ ‭○‬ ‭Size(N)-‬‭the‬‭total‬‭number‬‭of‬‭individuals‬‭in‬‭a‬‭given‬‭area‬ ‭○‬ ‭Density-‬‭the‬‭number‬‭of‬‭individuals‬‭per‬‭unit‬‭area‬‭at‬‭any‬‭given‬‭time;‬‭estimates‬ ‭whether‬‭a‬‭species‬‭is‬‭rare‬‭or‬‭abundant‬ ‭○‬ ‭Distribution-‬‭a‬‭description‬‭of‬‭how‬‭individuals‬‭are‬‭distributed‬‭to‬‭one‬‭another;‬‭this‬ ‭is‬‭how‬‭populations‬‭occupy‬‭space‬ ‭○‬ ‭Sex‬‭Ratio-‬‭males‬‭to‬‭females;‬‭most‬‭successful‬‭when‬‭50:50‬‭but‬‭not‬‭all‬‭are‬‭equal;‬‭we‬ ‭can‬‭predict‬‭future‬‭populations‬‭based‬‭on‬‭females‬ ‭○‬ ‭Age‬‭structure-‬‭How‬‭many‬‭individuals‬‭fit‬‭a‬‭particular‬‭age‬‭category;‬‭helps‬‭predict‬ ‭how‬‭a‬‭population‬‭will‬‭grow‬‭or‬‭decrease‬ ‭Density‬‭Dependent‬‭Factors‬ ‭‬ ‭Gause’s‬‭Experiment‬‭with‬‭test‬‭tube‬‭communities‬ ‭‬ ‭Limiting‬‭resources-‬‭if‬‭they‬‭lower‬‭the‬‭population‬‭will‬‭lower‬‭(water,‬‭food,‬‭shelter,‬ ‭nutrients)‬ ‭‬ ‭Carrying‬‭Capacity(K)-‬‭the‬‭limit‬‭to‬‭how‬‭many‬‭individuals‬‭an‬‭environment‬‭can‬‭sustain‬ ‭(dependent‬‭on‬‭limiting‬‭factors)‬ ‭Density‬‭Independent‬‭Factors‬ ‭‬ ‭Population‬‭size‬‭is‬‭not‬‭a‬‭factor‬ ‭○‬ ‭Without‬‭factoring‬‭in‬‭limiting‬‭resources‬ ‭○‬ ‭Without‬‭factoring‬‭in‬‭carrying‬‭capacity‬ ‭‬ ‭Think‬‭of‬‭weather‬‭patterns,‬‭natural‬‭disasters,‬‭anthropogenic‬‭disasters,‬‭etc.‬ ‭M19‬ ‭Population‬‭Growth‬‭Models‬ ‭12-5‬ ‭Exponential‬‭growth‬‭model‬‭-‬‭a‬‭model‬‭of‬‭the‬‭intrinsic‬‭growth‬‭rate(r)‬‭(maximum‬‭potential‬‭of‬ ‭growth)‬ ‭‬ ‭Population‬‭that‬‭continuously‬‭grow‬ ‭‬ ‭Ideal‬‭conditions‬ ‭‬ ‭Unlimited‬‭resources‬ ‭‬ ‭High‬‭births,‬‭low‬‭deaths‬ ‭‬ ‭N‬‭t‬‭=N‬‭o‭e‬ ‬‭rt‬ ‭○‬ ‭N‬‭t‭-‬ ‬‭future‬‭size‬ ‭○‬ ‭N‬‭o‭-‬ ‬‭current‬‭size‬ ‭○‬ ‭e-‬‭around‬‭2.72‬ ‭○‬ ‭r-‬‭growth‬‭rate‬ ‭○‬ ‭t-time‬ ‭‬ ‭Populations‬‭not‬‭affected‬‭by‬‭resources‬ ‭are‬‭density-independent‬ ‭‬ ‭Results‬‭in‬‭J-shaped‬‭curve‬ ‭Logistic‬‭Growth‬‭Model‬ ‭‬ ‭Populations‬‭that‬‭experience‬‭K‬‭(carrying‬‭capacity)‬ ‭‬ ‭Growth‬‭happens‬‭at‬‭a‬‭fixed‬‭rate‬ ‭‬ ‭Limiting‬‭resources‬ ‭‬ ‭Initially‬‭exponential,‬‭but‬‭slows‬‭as‬‭it‬‭reaches‬‭K‬ ‭‬ ‭Used‬‭to‬‭predict‬‭population‬‭growth‬‭of‬‭density-dependent‬‭populations‬ ‭‬ ‭Does‬‭not‬‭account‬‭for‬‭density-independent‬‭factors‬ ‭‬ ‭Number‬‭of‬‭offspring‬‭depends‬‭on‬‭N‭t‬‬ ‭‬ ‭Results‬‭in‬‭S-shaped‬‭curve‬ ‭‬ ‭May‬‭experience‬‭overshoots‬‭and‬‭die0offs‬‭(ex.‬‭malting‬‭in‬‭fall,‬‭birth‬‭in‬‭spring)‬ ‭Reproductive‬‭Strategies‬ ‭‬ ‭K-Selected‬‭Species‬ ‭○‬ ‭Low‬‭intrinsic‬‭growth‬‭rates‬ ‭○‬ ‭Population‬‭slows‬‭as‬‭it‬‭reaches‬‭K‬ ‭○‬ ‭Larger‬‭organisms‬‭and‬‭most‬‭birds‬ ‭○‬ ‭Reproductive‬‭maturity‬‭is‬‭reached‬‭late‬ ‭○‬ ‭Produce‬‭few‬‭offspring‬ ‭○‬ ‭Provide‬‭parental‬‭care‬ ‭○‬ ‭Ex.‬‭people‬‭and‬‭elephants‬ ‭‬ ‭R-Selected‬‭Species‬‭(growth‬‭rate)‬ ‭○‬ ‭High‬‭intrinsic‬‭rates‬ ‭○‬ ‭Experience‬‭large‬‭overshoots‬‭and‬‭die-offs‬ ‭○‬ ‭Reproduce‬‭often‬‭and‬‭in‬‭large‬‭number‬ ‭○‬ ‭Tend‬‭to‬‭be‬‭smaller‬‭organisms‬ ‭○‬ ‭Reach‬‭reproductive‬‭maturity‬‭early‬ ‭○‬ ‭Little‬‭to‬‭no‬‭parental‬‭care‬ ‭○‬ ‭Ex.‬‭mice‬ ‭Survivalship‬‭Curves‬‭-‬‭patterns‬‭of‬‭survival‬‭of‬‭individuals‬‭overtime/lifespan‬ ‭Type‬‭I‬ ‭Type‬‭II‬ ‭Type‬‭III‬ ‭High‬‭Survival‬‭rate‬ ‭Steady‬‭decline‬‭in‬‭survival‬ ‭Low‬‭survival‬‭rate‬ ‭Die‬‭in‬‭large‬‭numbers‬‭in‬‭old‬‭age‬ ‭Ex.‬‭squirrels‬ ‭Few‬‭make‬‭it‬‭to‬‭adulthood‬ ‭K-selected‬‭species‬ ‭R-selected‬‭species‬ ‭Ex.‬‭humans‬ ‭Ex.‬‭mice‬ ‭Metapopulations‬ ‭‬ ‭Cougars-‬‭separated‬‭(allopatric‬‭speciation)‬‭by‬‭land‬‭masses;‬‭each‬‭population‬‭is‬‭considered‬ ‭its‬‭own‬‭species‬‭(mountains)‬ ‭○‬ ‭Cougars‬‭can‬‭move‬‭between‬‭mountain‬‭ranges‬‭via‬‭corridors‬‭(strips‬‭of‬‭land‬ ‭connecting‬‭separated‬‭populations)‬ ‭○‬ ‭Each‬‭species‬‭of‬‭cougar‬‭is‬‭still‬‭connected‬‭by‬‭these‬‭movements‬‭and‬‭is‬‭known‬‭as‬ ‭metapopulations‬ ‭‬ ‭The‬‭connectedness‬‭allows‬‭for‬‭each‬‭population's‬‭persistence‬ ‭○‬ ‭Small‬‭populations‬‭are‬‭more‬‭likely‬‭to‬‭go‬‭extinct‬‭due‬‭to‬‭a‬‭higher‬‭likelihood‬‭of‬ ‭experiencing‬‭inbreeding‬‭depression‬‭(impaired‬‭ability‬‭when‬‭each‬‭parent‬‭carries‬‭a‬ ‭harmful‬‭gene)‬‭Lower‬‭genetic‬‭diversity‬ ‭○‬ ‭Small‬‭populations‬‭are‬‭also‬‭more‬‭vulnerable‬‭to‬‭natural‬‭disasters‬ ‭‬ ‭In‬‭metapopulations,‬‭corridors‬‭allow‬‭for‬‭each‬‭species‬‭to‬‭genetic‬‭diversity‬‭to‬‭another‬ ‭M20‬ ‭Community‬‭Ecology‬ ‭12-10‬ ‭Negative‬‭Effects‬‭of‬‭Community‬‭Ecology‬ ‭‬ ‭Study‬‭of‬‭interactions‬‭among‬‭species‬ ‭‬ ‭Symbiotic‬‭relationships‬ ‭‬ ‭Competition(-/-)-individuals‬‭competing‬‭for‬‭the‬‭same‬‭limited‬‭resources‬ ‭‬ ‭Predation(+/-)-predator‬‭versus‬‭prey‬ ‭‬ ‭Parasitism(+/-)-lives‬‭on/in‬‭the‬‭host,‬‭rarely‬‭causes‬‭death‬‭(ex.‬‭tapeworm)‬ ‭‬ ‭Herbivory(+/-)-‬‭animal‬‭consumes‬‭producers‬ ‭Competitive‬‭Exclusion‬‭Principle‬‭-‬‭two‬‭species‬‭competing‬‭for‬‭the‬‭same‬‭resource;‬‭can’t‬‭coexist‬ ‭‬ ‭Under‬‭a‬‭given‬‭set‬‭of‬‭environmental‬‭conditions,‬‭when‬‭2‬‭species‬‭have‬‭the‬‭same‬‭realized‬ ‭niche,‬‭one‬‭species‬‭will‬‭perform‬‭better‬‭and‬‭will‬‭drive‬‭the‬‭other‬‭species‬‭to‬‭extinction‬ ‭Resources‬‭Partitioning‬‭-‬‭2‬‭Species‬‭will‬‭divide‬‭a‬‭resource‬‭based‬‭on‬‭differences‬‭in‬‭behavior‬‭or‬ ‭morphology‬ ‭‬ ‭Wolf‬‭versus‬‭coyote‬ ‭‬ ‭Desert‬‭plants‬ ‭‬ ‭Darwin’s‬‭finches‬ ‭Parasitoids‬‭-‬‭a‬‭type‬‭of‬‭predation‬ ‭‬ ‭Lay‬‭eggs‬‭in‬‭a‬‭host‬‭and‬‭when‬‭they‬‭hatch‬‭the‬‭larva‬‭slowly‬‭consumes‬‭the‬‭host‬‭from‬‭the‬ ‭inside‬‭out‬ ‭‬ ‭Parasites‬‭can‬‭cause‬‭disease‬‭in‬‭the‬‭host‬‭called‬‭pathogens‬ ‭○‬ ‭Viruses‬ ‭○‬ ‭Bacterial‬ ‭○‬ ‭Fungal‬ ‭○‬ ‭Protists‬‭(protozoan‬‭or‬‭algae)‬ ‭○‬ ‭Helminths‬‭(worm-like‬‭organisms)‬ ‭○‬ ‭Causes‬‭diseases‬‭from‬‭common‬‭colds‬‭to‬‭some‬‭forms‬‭of‬‭cancer‬ ‭Species‬‭can‬‭evolve‬‭to‬‭have‬‭defenses‬‭against‬‭predator‬ ‭‬ ‭Behavioral‬‭(hiding)‬ ‭‬ ‭Morphological‬‭(camouflage‬‭ex.‬‭water‬‭fleas)‬ ‭‬ ‭Chemical‬‭(emit‬‭chemicals,‬‭ex.‬‭poison‬‭dart‬‭frogs)‬ ‭‬ ‭Mimic‬‭(ex.‬‭poison‬‭frog‬‭vs.‬‭non-poison)‬ ‭Herbivores‬‭can‬‭have‬‭dramatic‬‭effects‬‭on‬‭producers‬ ‭‬ ‭Too‬‭abundant‬‭can‬‭kill‬‭off‬‭species‬ ‭‬ ‭If‬‭they‬‭are‬‭exclusive‬‭from‬‭an‬‭area,‬‭producers‬‭can‬‭overpopulate‬ ‭Neutral/Positive‬‭Effects‬ ‭‬ ‭Mutualism(+/+)-‬‭both‬‭benefit‬‭(plants‬‭and‬‭pollinators)‬ ‭○‬ ‭Both‬‭benefit‬‭and‬‭increase‬‭each‬‭other's‬‭chances‬‭of‬‭survival‬ ‭○‬ I‭ n‬‭mutualism,‬‭if‬‭the‬‭benefit‬‭of‬‭one‬‭party‬‭becomes‬‭too‬‭small‬‭it‬‭will‬‭no‬‭longer‬‭be‬ ‭worth‬‭the‬‭cost‬‭and‬‭natural‬‭selection‬‭will‬‭take‬‭over‬ ‭○‬ ‭Over‬‭generations‬‭and‬‭through‬‭natural‬‭selection‬‭organisms‬‭can‬‭evolve‬‭to‬‭make‬ ‭mutualism‬‭work‬ ‭ ‬ ‭Commensalism‬‭(+/=)-benefits‬‭one‬‭without‬‭affecting‬‭the‬‭other‬ ‭○‬ ‭Ex.‬‭trees‬‭and‬‭bird‬‭nests,‬‭coral‬‭reefs‬‭and‬‭fish‬ ‭Type‬‭of‬‭Interaction‬ ‭Species‬‭1‬ ‭Species‬‭2‬ ‭Competition‬ ‭-‬ ‭-‬ ‭Predation‬ ‭+‬ ‭-‬ ‭Parasitism‬ ‭+‬ ‭-‬ ‭Herbivory‬ ‭+‬ ‭-‬ ‭Mutualism‬ ‭+‬ ‭+‬ ‭Commensalism‬ ‭+‬ ‭=‬ ‭Keystone‬‭species‬‭-‬‭not‬‭abundant‬‭but‬‭significant‬ ‭‬ ‭Ex.‬‭beavers‬‭or‬‭honey‬‭bees‬ ‭M21‬ ‭Community‬‭Succession‬ ‭12-10‬ ‭Ecological‬‭Succession‬ ‭‬ ‭Every‬‭community‬‭experiences‬‭this‬ ‭‬ ‭Can‬‭occur‬‭over‬‭decades‬‭to‬‭centuries‬ ‭1)‬ ‭Primary‬‭Succession‬ ‭‬ ‭Begin‬‭with‬‭rock‬‭and‬‭no‬‭soil‬ ‭‬ ‭Newly‬‭exposed‬‭rock‬‭because‬‭of‬‭glacial‬‭retreat,‬‭lava‬‭cooling,‬‭abandoned‬‭parking‬ ‭lot‬ ‭‬ ‭Over‬‭time,‬ ‭soil‬‭is‬‭formed,‬‭plants‬‭with‬‭deep‬‭root‬‭systems‬‭can‬‭start‬‭to‬‭grow,‬ ‭grasses‬‭and‬‭wildflowers‬‭and‬‭wildflowers‬‭will‬‭easily‬‭disperse‬‭to‬‭these‬‭areas‬ ‭2)‬ ‭Secondary‬‭Succession‬ ‭‬ ‭Occurs‬‭in‬‭areas‬‭where‬‭a‬‭disturbance‬‭has‬‭occurred‬‭but‬‭has‬‭not‬‭lost‬‭their‬‭soil‬ ‭‬ ‭Follows‬‭events‬‭such‬‭as‬‭forest‬‭fires,‬‭hurricanes,‬‭or‬‭ag‬‭fields‬‭that‬‭have‬‭been‬‭left‬ ‭bare‬ ‭‬ ‭Pioneer‬‭species‬‭will‬‭quickly‬‭grow‬‭due‬‭to‬‭all‬‭the‬‭sunlight,‬‭as‬‭they‬‭grow‬‭and‬‭form‬‭a‬ ‭canopy‬‭new‬‭shade-tolerant‬‭species‬‭will‬‭grow‬ ‭‬ ‭Secondary‬‭Succession‬‭happens‬‭on‬‭a‬‭vast‬‭scale‬‭from‬‭a‬‭single‬‭tree‬‭to‬‭thousands‬‭of‬ ‭acres‬‭after‬‭a‬‭forest‬‭fire‬ ‭3)‬ ‭Climax‬‭Community‬ ‭○‬ ‭Succession‬‭in‬‭its‬‭final‬‭stage‬ ‭Aquatic‬‭Ecosystem‬‭Succession‬ ‭‬ ‭Rocky‬‭intertidal‬‭zones‬ ‭‬ ‭Major‬‭storms‬‭that‬‭turn‬‭over‬‭rocks‬‭or‬‭clear‬‭surfaces‬‭of‬‭living‬‭things,‬‭can‬‭be‬‭recognized‬ ‭‬ ‭Ponds‬‭and‬‭lakes:‬‭glacial‬‭movements‬ ‭Species‬‭Richness‬ ‭‬ ‭Species‬‭aren't‬‭distributed‬‭evenly‬ ‭‬ ‭Determined‬‭by‬‭3‬‭basic‬‭processes‬ ‭○‬ ‭Colonization‬ ‭○‬ ‭Speciation‬ ‭○‬ ‭Losses‬‭by‬‭extension‬ ‭‬ ‭Importances‬‭of‬‭these‬‭are‬‭influenced‬‭by‬ ‭○‬ ‭Latitude‬ ‭‬ ‭As‬‭we‬‭move‬‭higher‬‭or‬‭lower‬‭the‬‭equator‬‭the‬‭number‬‭of‬‭species‬‭declines‬ ‭‬ ‭Southern‬‭latitudes‬‭have‬‭about‬‭12,000‬‭species,‬‭Northern‬‭Canada‬ ‭has‬‭about‬‭1,700‬ ‭○‬ ‭Time‬ ‭‬ ‭The‬‭longer‬‭a‬‭habitat‬‭exists‬‭the‬‭more‬‭species‬‭colonization‬‭and‬‭extension‬ ‭occurs‬ ‭○‬ ‭Size‬‭and‬‭Distance‬ ‭‬ ‭Larger‬‭habitats=more‬‭species‬ ‭1)‬ ‭Dispersing‬‭species‬‭generally‬‭seek‬‭larger‬‭habitats‬ ‭2)‬ ‭At‬‭any‬‭given‬‭latitude,‬‭bigger‬‭habitats‬‭hold‬‭more‬ ‭3)‬ ‭Large‬‭habitats‬‭usually‬‭have‬‭a‬‭wider‬‭range‬‭of‬‭environmental‬ ‭conditions‬ ‭‬ ‭Habitats‬‭that‬‭are‬‭isolated‬‭by‬‭large‬‭distances‬‭will‬‭have‬‭less‬‭species‬ ‭Theory‬‭of‬‭Island‬‭Biogeography‬ ‭‬ ‭Colonization,‬‭speciation,‬‭and‬‭extinction‬‭have‬‭important‬‭implications‬‭for‬‭conservation‬ ‭‬ ‭The‬‭theory‬‭originally‬‭applied‬‭to‬‭oceanic‬‭islands‬‭but‬‭applies‬‭to‬‭“habitat‬‭islands‬‭Ex.‬ ‭national‬‭parks‬‭or‬‭Central‬‭Park‬ ‭‬ ‭Often‬‭surrounded‬‭by‬‭less‬‭hospitable‬‭habitats‬‭that‬‭have‬‭dramatic‬‭anthropogenic‬ ‭alterations‬

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