AP World Notes PDF

12-1: Government’s Role from 1750 to 1900 -​ Global Political Consequences of Industrialization: -​ The industrialization of a few nations significantly shifted global power dynamics. -​ Industrialized nations became politically and militarily stronger, enabling...

12-1: Government’s Role from 1750 to 1900 -​ Global Political Consequences of Industrialization: -​ The industrialization of a few nations significantly shifted global power dynamics. -​ Industrialized nations became politically and militarily stronger, enabling them to impose their will on less industrialized or non-industrialized regions. -​ Weaker nations often became political and economic dependents, relying on or being exploited by industrial powers. 12-1a: Egypt -​ Muhammad Ali's Goal: -​ Sought to strengthen Egypt economically and militarily to reduce dependency on the Ottoman Empire. -​ Industrialization Efforts: -​ Built cotton mills, weapons factories, foundries, and shipyards. -​ Imported European advisors, engineers, and technicians for expertise. -​ Established state-controlled industries to produce military supplies and consumer goods. -​ Economic Foundation: -​ Farmers were required to grow cotton and wheat for export to finance industrial projects. -​ Government bought crops at low prices and exported them for profit. -​ High tariffs imposed on imported goods to protect local industries and encourage domestic manufacturing. -​ Conflict with Britain: -​ Egypt’s strategic location controlled the vital route between Europe and India, important for British trade. -​ In 1839, Egypt’s war with the Ottoman Empire triggered British military intervention. -​ Britain forced Muhammad Ali to eliminate import duties in favor of "free trade," undermining Egypt’s industries. -​ Impact of Free Trade: -​ The removal of tariffs exposed Egypt’s fledgling industries to cheap British goods.  -​ Egyptian industries could not compete with advanced British products, leading to economic dependency. -​ Shift to Cotton Export: -​ Egypt became a major supplier of raw cotton to Britain’s textile industry. -​ Limited diversification left Egypt vulnerable to global market fluctuations. -​ Economic Dependency: -​ Egypt became a consumer of British manufactured goods, perpetuating economic subjugation. -​ This dependency resulted in stagnation of Egypt's industrial development. -​ Long-Term Consequences: -​ Egypt’s failure to industrialize led to its vulnerability and eventual British occupation in 1882. -​ Muhammad Ali’s reforms provided a foundation for future development but were insufficient to overcome imperial control. -​ Legacy: -​ Muhammad Ali’s story highlights how imperialist policies stunted industrialization in the Global South, reinforcing patterns of inequality. 12-1b: India -​ Pre-Industrial Textile Dominance: -​ Indian cotton textiles were highly valued in the global market from the 16th century, especially in Europe, due to their lightweight nature and ease of cleaning compared to linen and wool. -​ European demand for Indian cotton surged as it became more popular among the wealthy and powerful in Europe and the Americas by the 1650s. -​ British East India Company: -​ Control of Bengal: By 1763, after the Seven Years' War, the British East India Company gained control of Bengal, one of India's key textile-producing regions. -​ Profits from Textiles: The importation of Indian cotton textiles became a significant revenue source for the British East India Company. -​ British Response - Tariffs and Protectionism: -​ Calico Acts: British textile producers opposed Indian textiles, leading to the introduction of tariffs and duties on Indian goods to protect the domestic market.  -​ British Advantages: Despite the tariffs, India had significant advantages: it produced raw cotton domestically, while Britain had to import cotton from the U.S. and elsewhere, and Indian labor was much cheaper than British labor. -​ Tariffs and Continued Imports: Despite tariffs, the demand for Indian textiles in Britain continued to grow, particularly in the late 18th century, when British manufacturing began incorporating mechanical innovations. -​ Industrial Revolution and Mechanization: -​ Spinning and Yarn: The British mechanization of cotton spinning in the early 19th century drastically reduced production costs, giving British textile producers a significant advantage. -​ Expansion of American Cotton: The increased supply of American cotton drove down prices for raw cotton in Britain, making machine-made textiles cheaper to produce. -​ Impact on Indian Weaving: By the 1830s, British yarn made from American cotton became cheaper than Indian hand-spun yarn, leading to the displacement of Indian spinners. -​ The Decline of Indian Textiles: -​ Steam-Driven Looms: The widespread adoption of steam-powered looms after 1830 in Britain made British textiles much cheaper than Indian handwoven cloth. -​ Loss of Skilled Jobs: Indian handloom weavers were displaced as cheaper British machine-made textiles flooded the Indian market. Despite this, Indian weavers continued to serve the lower-income segments of society. -​ India’s Vulnerability: As a British colony, India could not use tariffs or duties to protect its domestic industries as Britain had done earlier. -​ Economic Shift: -​ Raw Materials Export: By the mid-19th century, India’s role in the global economy shifted from being a textile producer to becoming an exporter of raw materials, particularly cotton, while importing British industrial goods. -​ Indian Railroads: To facilitate the export of raw materials and the flow of British goods, the British introduced railroads, beginning in the 1850s, along with coal mining and the installation of telegraph lines. -​ Rise of Indian Entrepreneurship: -​ Cowasjee Nanabhoy Davar: In 1854, an Indian merchant, Cowasjee Nanabhoy Davar, established India’s first mechanized textile mill in Bombay, marking the beginning of India’s modern cotton textile industry.  -​ Slow Industrial Growth: Despite this progress, India's industrialization was slow due to British control of the economy and the lack of support for Indian entrepreneurs. -​ Consequences for Indian Society: -​ Displacement of Weavers: As Indian textile workers were displaced by imported goods, many turned to farming, becoming landless peasants who struggled to survive. -​ Economic Dependency: India’s shift to being a raw material exporter and a consumer of British goods made it economically dependent on British industrial production. -​ Long-Term Effects: -​ Stunted Industrialization: The British policies and the Industrial Revolution ultimately hindered India’s industrial potential, leaving it reliant on British imports and creating lasting economic inequality. 12-1c: China -​ 18th Century Economic Stability: -​ China experienced relative political stability during the Qing dynasty, benefiting from population growth and commercial expansion. -​ Market towns specializing in cotton textiles, silk, and staple goods developed in east-central China. -​ Rudimentary banking and credit mechanisms facilitated long-distance trade. -​ European Influence and Growing Power: -​ European powers, initially the Portuguese and Dutch and later the British and French, established militarized commercial presences in Asia. -​ Despite European expansion, China continued to dominate major Asian markets and maintained a favorable trade balance with Europe, financed by silver from European colonies. -​ Agrarian Focus: -​ China remained primarily an agrarian empire, less reliant on foreign trade compared to European powers like Britain. -​ The Chinese government concentrated resources on food production and distribution, ensuring social peace, rather than focusing on foreign trade. -​ Limited Foreign Trade and Technological Advancements:  -​ With abundant labor and a lack of a national market, China did not prioritize foreign trade or technological innovation. -​ Unlike European nations, China did not initially see the need to promote machine technologies or industrialization. -​ Changing Economic Dynamics: -​ In the early 19th century, Britain's Industrial Revolution enabled it to push for reversing its unfavorable trade balance with China. -​ Great Britain, now with advanced military technology, began exerting pressure on China, which was facing internal instability and foreign threats. -​ The Opium Wars and Military Power: -​ In 1840, the British launched the "Nemesis," the first steam-powered iron gunboat, equipped with advanced weaponry. It navigated Chinese rivers, defeating Chinese forces who were less advanced militarily. -​ British steamships, supported by military technology, gave Britain a significant advantage, enabling it to defeat China despite the latter's size and population. -​ Western Dominance: -​ The cases of Egypt, India, and China illustrate how industrialization allowed Western powers to exert influence and intervene in non-industrialized societies, marking the beginning of an era of Western dominance. -​ Industrial Projects in Non-Industrial Societies: -​ In the latter half of the 19th century, industrialized nations, particularly Great Britain, began sending engineers and materials to build infrastructure such as railroads in less industrialized parts of the world, including Egypt. -​ One example is the construction of a railroad bridge over the Nile in Egypt connecting Cairo and Alexandria, symbolizing the spread of industrialization outside Europe. 12-1d: The West Challenges Japan -​ Tokugawa Shogunate and Japan's Political Structure: -​ Japan was governed by the Tokugawa Shogunate, a military government under the shogun, with the emperor serving a largely religious role. -​ Local lords, or daimyos, controlled their lands with minimal interference from the shogunate, which established its capital in Edo (modern Tokyo) in 1603. -​ Expansion of Foreign Contact and Initial Trade: -​ In the early 17th century, the Tokugawa Shogunate expanded commercial and cultural contacts with Asian neighbors and limited trade with the Dutch, English, and Spanish. -​ Catholic missionaries created a small community of converts, and Japan sent official missions to Spain and Europe, including a meeting with the Pope. -​ Shift Toward Isolation: -​ As foreign contacts revealed Japan’s military and economic vulnerabilities, the shogunate decided to curtail foreign interactions. -​ By 1612, Japan began suppressing Christianity and foreign trade, executing missionaries and converts in the 1620s, which led to a rebellion in the 1630s. -​ The shogunate expelled foreigners, restricted trade to two ports, and prohibited foreigners from entering Japan. Only the Dutch were allowed a small commercial outpost in Nagasaki. -​ Internal Challenges and Growing Awareness: -​ Despite strict laws, some Japanese, especially powerful southern lords, engaged in black-market trade and piracy, taking advantage of the shogunate’s decentralized political structure. -​ The appearance of Russian and British ships off the coast in 1792 prompted local lords to recognize Japan’s weakness and start developing reformed military forces and arsenals. -​ A small group of intellectuals began studying European culture, known as “Dutch learning.” -​ Commodore Perry’s Arrival: -​ In 1853, Commodore Matthew C. Perry arrived with a powerful fleet and demanded that Japan open its ports to trade, triggering a political crisis. -​ The shogunate’s advisers recommended capitulating to avoid the fate of China, which had suffered from Western imperialism. -​ In 1854, the Treaty of Kanagawa was signed, opening two Japanese ports to trade and marking the beginning of Japan’s exposure to Western influence. -​ Opposition to the Shogunate: -​ The treaty and the shogunate’s inability to resist foreign pressure sparked anger, particularly in the southern provinces of Satsuma and Choshu. -​ These regions, benefiting from strong economies and growing populations, opposed the shogunate and began to form an alliance to overthrow it.  -​ Rising Rebellion and Collapse of the Tokugawa Shogunate: -​ In 1864, British and French ships shelled the southwestern coasts to protest Japan’s treatment of foreigners, which further enraged provincial samurai. -​ In 1867, the leaders of Choshu and Satsuma decided to unite and overthrow the Tokugawa Shogunate, signaling the start of the Meiji Restoration. 12-1e: The Meiji Restoration and the Modernization of Japan, 1868–1894 -​ The Meiji Restoration (1868) and Japan’s Modernization: -​ In 1868, provincial rebels overthrew the Tokugawa Shogunate and declared the fourteen-year-old emperor Mutsuhito (Meiji) as ruler. -​ The new regime, led by the “Meiji oligarchs,” sought to modernize Japan and protect it from Western imperialism, aiming to create a “rich country with a strong army” and world-class industries. -​ This marked a profound change in Japan, similar to the French Revolution in Europe. -​ Japan’s Expansion and Colonial Empire: -​ As Japan modernized, it followed European examples by seeking overseas colonies. -​ Japan expanded its empire by taking Taiwan from China (1895), Karafutu (Sakhalin) from Russia (1905), and all of Korea (1910). -​ Geography and Naval Modernization: -​ Geography played a crucial role in Japan’s modernization efforts. The map shows Japan's industrial and territorial expansion, highlighting key manufacturing areas and railroad connections, but also indicating the strategic importance of naval power for Japan’s growth and defense. -​ Naval modernization became essential for Japan as it sought to expand its territorial holdings and secure its position in East Asia. -​ Charter Oath and Japan's Embrace of Foreign Ideas: -​ The Charter Oath issued in 1868 emphasized Japan’s openness to foreign knowledge, which would strengthen its imperial polity. -​ Japan’s high literacy rate enabled the oligarchs to implement new educational systems, a conscript army, and improved communication systems to rapidly modernize the country. -​ Early Industrialization and the Role of Education:  -​ Japan benefited from prior industrial development in the provinces, helping to establish heavy industry. -​ The new government focused on creating a literate, competent, and loyal citizenry, capable of supporting modernization efforts. 12-2: Economic Developments of the Industrial Age -​ The Industrial Revolution triggered significant political and ideological conflict. -​ The period saw many wars and revolutions, making it difficult to separate the effects of industrialization from political changes, Enlightenment philosophies, and economic cycles. -​ Industrialization disrupted social traditions and widened the gap between the rich and poor. -​ As a result, it intensified the competing ideas of laissez-faire capitalism and socialism, while also sparking workers’ organization efforts and protests. 12-2a: Laissez Faire and Its Critics -​ Adam Smith and Laissez Faire: -​ Adam Smith, a Scottish economist, argued in The Wealth of Nations (1776) that if individuals pursued their own interests, it would lead to benefits for society, guided by an “invisible hand.” -​ Smith advocated for minimal government interference in business, only intervening to protect private property, and supported free trade with no tariffs or duties. -​ His ideas challenged the existing mercantilist system, which emphasized government regulation to increase national wealth by accumulating precious metals. -​ Reaction to Laissez Faire: -​ After 1815, inspired by Smith, governments started to reduce commercial regulations to encourage trade, but no major powers fully embraced free trade or opened their economies to foreign competition. -​ Despite the growing poverty of the working class due to industrialization, governments were slow to address the social issues caused by these economic shifts. -​ Alternative Views on Economics:  -​ Thomas Malthus and David Ricardo, contemporaries of Smith, explained the poverty of the working class without rejecting laissez faire. -​ Malthus believed poverty was a result of rapid population growth exceeding the food supply, leading to low wages and famine. -​ Ricardo’s theory of “natural law” suggested that the condition of workers was just as determined by economic forces as the wealth of successful businessmen, advocating for population control through delayed marriage and abstinence. -​ Friedrich List’s Critique: -​ Friedrich List, a German economist, rejected laissez-faire and free trade, seeing them as a way for Britain to dominate the global economy. -​ He argued that Germany and other countries needed to protect their "infant industries" by imposing high tariffs to shield them from British competition. -​ List’s ideas helped inspire the formation of the Zollverein in 1834, a customs union that reduced tariffs within Germany but controlled foreign imports, especially from Britain. 12-2b: Development and Underdevelopment -​ Economic Growth in the Western Hemisphere by 1900: -​ Despite three periods of economic contraction in the 19th century, the nations of the Western Hemisphere were wealthier by 1900 than in 1800. -​ Factors such as the Industrial Revolution, population growth, and a more integrated global market spurred economic growth. -​ New exports like wheat, corn, wool, and meat joined traditional products like silver, sugar, and coffee. -​ The U.S. was the only Western Hemisphere country to industrialize fully, but other nations encouraged new industries through investments in infrastructure like railroads, canals, and telegraphs. -​ Mining and the Role of Foreign Corporations: -​ The demand for copper, zinc, coal, and other minerals during the Industrial Revolution caused mining booms in places like the U.S., Mexico, Bolivia, and Chile. -​ By 1900, European and North American corporations owned most large mining operations in Latin America.  -​ Similarly, petroleum development followed this trend, with foreign investments dominating the sector. -​ Railroads and steamships helped transport products to foreign markets, while technology also increased dependence on foreign capital. -​ Technological Advancements and Economic Integration: -​ New technology, like railroads, telegraphs, barbed wire, and refrigeration, transformed economies by overcoming logistical barriers. -​ For example, Argentina, which had long raised livestock, benefited from refrigerated transport, railroads, and telegraphs, allowing it to export meat to Europe. -​ Diverging Economic Tracks: Development vs. Underdevelopment: -​ By 1900, economies in North America (especially the U.S. and Canada) had industrialized and prospered, while many Latin American nations remained dependent on raw material exports and low-wage industries. -​ Argentina, with its fertile land, immigrant influx, and climate, was the only Latin American country to approach North American prosperity. -​ The Impact of Railroads on Economic Growth: -​ The United States expanded its railroad network significantly between 1865 and 1915, boosting steel production and facilitating growth in agriculture, industry, and transportation. -​ Canada's political autonomy in 1867 coincided with a global economic expansion, benefiting from strong ties with Britain and immigrant growth. -​ Latin America’s Struggles: -​ Most Latin American nations gained independence during a period of global economic contraction, and faced competition in the agricultural and mining sectors. -​ These nations experienced a cycle of boom and bust, facing challenges like falling prices, foreign competition, and political instability. -​ Efforts to promote industrialization were hindered by low wages, foreign imports, and weak governments. -​ Nations like Mexico, Chile, and Argentina failed to attract significant domestic investment in manufacturing despite wealth from exports. -​ The influence of Britain and, later, the U.S., often worsened the situation through unfavorable trade terms and military interventions to protect investments. 12-2c: World Trade and Finance -​ Increase in global trade: -​ Transportation and communication improvements, along with population growth, led to a tenfold increase in world trade between 1850 and 1913. -​ Europe imported wheat, wool, and beef, while exporting coal, machinery, and textiles. -​ The advent of steamships made shipping more efficient and cheaper, strengthening long-distance trade. -​ Economic growth in different regions: -​ Western Europe and North America, the first industrialized regions, became more prosperous and diversified, producing goods for a growing middle-class market. -​ This economic boom benefited mostly the elite and urban middle classes in developing countries, with harsh working conditions for those in plantations and mines. -​ Business cycles and economic instability: -​ Even rapidly growing capitalist economies faced business cycles, with booms followed by recessions. -​ The 1873 collapse of a bank in Austria triggered a global depression that spread to the U.S., causing widespread unemployment. -​ Periodic recessions, like the Panic of 1893, led to sustained high unemployment rates in the U.S. -​ Impacts of overproduction and imperialism: -​ Fear of overproduction and falling prices prompted countries to seek expanded markets and access to raw materials, leading to imperialism. -​ Despite high tariffs and protectionist policies, economies were still interconnected, and money continued flowing globally. -​ Britain’s financial dominance: -​ Great Britain controlled global trade, finance, and information, owning two-thirds of submarine cables and over half of the world’s shipping. -​ The British invested heavily overseas, particularly in India, the U.S., and Argentina, and the pound sterling became the dominant currency in international transactions. -​ Sugar production in Cuba:  -​ Sugar played a crucial role in the Western Hemisphere economy, and the expansion of sugar agriculture in Cuba led to the island becoming the world’s largest producer by the early 19th century. -​ However, challenges arose as Britain pushed for an end to the slave trade, and the rise of beet sugar production reduced global sugar prices. -​ The Cuban sugar industry adapted by adopting new technologies, which favored large-scale producers over smaller ones. -​ Technological changes and industry consolidation: -​ New technologies in Cuba’s sugar refineries, such as steam engines and efficient refining processes, favored large producers who could afford mechanization. -​ Small-scale producers were displaced, and sugar production became more centralized as large estates bought up smaller producers. -​ Cuba’s economic structure and elite control: -​ Technological innovations in sugar production led to the concentration of wealth and power in the hands of a small elite of large-scale producers. -​ By the 1890s, Cuba’s sugar sector was dominated by industrialized refiners, often foreign-owned, while cane farmers became increasingly dependent on them. -​ Vulnerabilities of nonindustrial economies: -​ Nonindustrial areas, often producers of raw materials like sugar, cotton, and dyes, became more vulnerable to global price fluctuations and synthetic substitutes. -​ These regions faced political instability and economic challenges as their export-based economies struggled to keep pace with population growth. 12-3: Reactions to the Industrial Economy -​ Social thinkers' concerns for the poor: -​ French thinkers like the count of Saint-Simon and Auguste Comte, motivated by concern for the poor, proposed a radically new vision of a just society. -​ The philosophy of positivism: -​ Positivism argued that the scientific method could address both social and technical issues.  -​ Saint-Simon and Comte believed the poor should be guided by scientists and artists in forming workers' communities, with protection from benevolent business leaders. -​ Support from entrepreneurs and bankers: -​ The ideas of positivism attracted enthusiastic support from bankers and entrepreneurs, as it justified investment in modern infrastructure such as railroads and canals. -​ Influence in Latin America: -​ Positivism had a significant influence in Latin America, particularly in Brazil and Mexico, where political elites implemented a top-down approach to economic development. -​ This program was reinforced by strict police control and manipulation of political systems. -​ Legacy of positivism: -​ The core principles of positivism are reflected in Brazil’s national motto, "Order and Progress," found on the Brazilian flag. 12-3a: Revolutionary Alternatives -​ Protests against industrial order: -​ Following the Industrial Revolution, numerous protest organizations emerged across Europe, with a minority of workers and their allies seeking to overthrow the new industrial system. -​ Marx and Engels’ critique of capitalism: -​ Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, key figures in the communist movement, criticized industrial capitalism for concentrating wealth and power, leading to the oppression of the working class (proletariat). -​ Marx's Das Kapital and The Communist Manifesto (1848) urged the working class to mobilize and overthrow the bourgeoisie (the ruling class). -​ The manifesto’s final words, "Proletarians of all countries unite!" called for global worker solidarity. -​ Rise of labor unions and social welfare: -​ Industrial conditions led to the formation of labor unions, demands for voting rights, and the creation of social welfare policies. Some people also envisioned revolutionary transformation. -​ Marx’s scientific socialism:  -​ Marx advocated for "scientific socialism," a revolutionary theory rooted in reason and logic. He believed industrial capitalism’s competition would create a society divided between a wealthy elite and impoverished workers. -​ Marx proposed that this division would lead to revolution and the establishment of a dictatorship of the proletariat, which would end private property and redistribute resources to end poverty and injustice. -​ Bakunin’s opposition and anarchism: -​ Russian intellectual Mikhail Bakunin criticized Marx’s reliance on the proletariat and government. He argued that peasants, displaced artisans, and other exploited groups also had revolutionary potential. -​ Bakunin’s followers developed anarchism, advocating for revolution through direct action like assassinations and bombings. Anarchists believed that government, like capitalism, was inherently oppressive. -​ Significant acts of violence included bombings in Spain (1893, 1896), the Haymarket bombing (1896), and assassinations of political leaders in the U.S. and Europe. -​ Conflict between Marx and Bakunin: -​ The rivalry culminated in 1872 when Bakunin’s followers were expelled from the International Workingman’s Association. Despite this, anarchism remained a source of political violence and worker mobilization in Italy, Spain, and Argentina well into the twentieth century. 12-3b: Protests and Reforms -​ Protests and Reforms: -​ Workers resisted poor conditions through strikes and riots, often during economic downturns or high food prices. -​ Craftsmen attacked factories and destroyed machines that threatened their livelihoods. -​ Early resistance began in 1767 with textile workers destroying the spinning jenny. -​ In 1779, workers in Blackburn destroyed water-powered machines. -​ Some workers sought better wages, while others aimed for societal change through secret organizations like United Britons. -​ The Luddite movement of 1811 involved systematic machine-breaking, and the government responded with force, executing many Luddites.  -​ Despite repression, workers continued protesting, such as in Loughborough in 1816. -​ State Power and the Rise of Bureaucracy: -​ Governments expanded statistical services to measure achievements and failures. -​ The rise of modern bureaucracies in Europe and the Americas led to the development of national census-taking. -​ Censuses helped governments assess military power, infrastructure, and welfare policies. -​ The Enlightenment belief in applying science to governance influenced modern statistical services. -​ France, Great Britain, and the Americas adopted "scientific" censuses during the 19th century. -​ Governments used censuses to measure progress, but census data often reinforced political agendas. -​ Census Practices and Identity: -​ European monarchies and religious authorities conducted early censuses for labor and taxation. -​ In the 18th century, Enlightenment thinkers advocated using statistics to guide government policies. -​ Nationality and race became key issues in census-taking, particularly in the Americas, where language determined political rights. -​ Census categories often oversimplified or distorted ethnic and racial identities, creating inequality. -​ Minority groups, like Jews, Poles, and Serbo-Croatians, were subject to discrimination through census classifications. -​ Census-taking was often biased and failed to capture the diversity of populations. -​ Machine Breaking and Worker Resistance in France and Britain: -​ In France, workers protested against the introduction of British industrial technology by destroying machines. -​ French artisans resisted mechanization during the Revolution, hindering industrial progress. -​ In Britain, rural workers resisted mechanization with the "Captain Swing" riots, leading to violent repression by the government. -​ Labor unions and political movements, such as Chartism, emerged to demand workplace reforms, higher wages, and expanded political rights.  -​ Factory and mines reforms, like the Factory Act of 1833 and Mines Act of 1842, were introduced in response to worker protests. -​ Workplace reforms spread more slowly in Europe compared to Britain, with widespread discontent seen in the revolutions of 1848. 12-3c: Labor Unions and Movements -​ Labor Unions and Movements: -​ Early Worker Organizations: European workers formed “friendly societies” for mutual assistance during illness, unemployment, or disability in the early 19th century. -​ Union Growth: Labor unions gained influence after laws banning strikes were abolished in the 1850s. Unions advocated for better wages, improved working conditions, and insurance for illness, accidents, disability, and old age. -​ Union Expansion: The union movement spread across Europe, the Americas, and eventually to Asia and Africa. By the end of the 19th century, unions in Britain had 2 million members, while those in Germany and the U.S. had 1 million members each. -​ Political Influence: Unions became political forces in democratic countries, pushing for improved wages and conditions. -​ Political Movements and Workers' Rights: -​ Democratic Socialism: Socialist politicians sought to gain political power through elections rather than revolution. They hoped to obtain concessions from the government and, eventually, form a government. -​ Universal Suffrage: Throughout the 19th century, the right to vote was gradually extended in Europe and the Americas. Universal male suffrage became law in several countries, including the U.S., France, Germany, and Britain. -​ Socialist and Political Parties: Many socialist politicians aimed to capture seats in parliaments to advocate for workers' rights. -​ Captain Swing Riots: -​ Rural Resistance: English rural laborers resisted the introduction of machines by destroying them, setting fires, and attacking landowners. This resistance was eventually suppressed by militias and troops. -​ Challenges for Working-Class Women:  -​ Political Disengagement: Women in the working class struggled with balancing job and family responsibilities, leaving them little time for politics. They were also excluded from male-dominated trade unions and political parties. -​ Radical Women: Notable figures such as Rosa Luxemburg and Emma Goldman became famous for their radical views, but their followings remained small. -​ Clara Zetkin's Views: Clara Zetkin argued that women’s economic independence was key to their liberation, but she recognized that the working class as a whole needed to improve before women could fully achieve equality. 12-4: Global Repercussions -​ Response to Industrialization: In reaction to the growing influence of industrializing states, some governments in Asia and Africa, including the Ottoman and Qing Empires, attempted to reform and modernize their economies and militaries. -​ Resistance to Reform: These reform efforts often encountered opposition from government officials and established elites, who were resistant to change and the challenges posed by modernization. 12-4a: The Ottoman Empire -​ Decline of central power in the Ottoman Empire: -​ In the 18th century, the Ottoman Empire's central government lost control to provincial governors, military commanders, and local elites. -​ Local officials and landholders sought greater independence, diverting imperial funds into their own coffers. -​ Reforms of Sultan Selim III: -​ Sultan Selim III (1789–1807) introduced reforms inspired by European military models, aiming to bring provincial governors under central control and standardize taxation. -​ The reforms were opposed by the Janissary corps, which feared losing economic privileges, and ulama, who opposed secularization. -​ Faced with widespread rejection, Selim suspended the reforms in 1806, leading to his deposition and execution. -​ Mahmud II and continued reforms:  -​ Sultan Mahmud II (1808–1839) cautiously revived Selim's reforms but recognized the need for more systematic and forceful changes. -​ He dissolved the Janissary corps in 1826 after they revolted, marking a significant military reform. -​ Mahmud II attempted to reduce the political power of the religious elite, aiming to restructure the bureaucracy, education, and legal systems. -​ Greek War of Independence and international impact: -​ Greece's independence in 1830 had broad international significance, drawing European support, including from figures like Lord Byron. -​ The Ottoman fleet was destroyed at the Battle of Navarino by combined British, French, and Russian forces, ensuring Greek victory. -​ The defeat was a major sign of Ottoman military weakness and led to further reforms in the empire. -​ The Tanzimat reforms (1839–1876): -​ The Tanzimat period, initiated by Sultan Abdul Mejid, introduced reforms like equal protection under the law, tax reform, and military conscription. -​ Public trials were established, and religious-based tax farming was abolished. -​ Legal codes were replaced by European-style codes, with the Shari’a law becoming limited to family matters, diminishing the ulama's influence. -​ The Tanzimat reforms were seen by some as the dawn of modern government but also removed a check on authoritarian rule. -​ Military and educational reforms: -​ Ottoman military reforms included sending cadets to Europe for training and establishing a military school in the 1830s. -​ The creation of a national education system, modeled on European institutions, led to the introduction of French as a common language of instruction. -​ Military education became the model for broader educational reforms, although traditional Quran schools remained prevalent. -​ Cultural and social changes: -​ The Ottoman Empire's reforms led to cultural changes in Istanbul, where a cosmopolitan, European-influenced elite emerged. -​ European dress became fashionable among progressive elites, while traditional dress came to symbolize rural and religious groups. -​ The military adopted the fez as part of the shift to modern, European-style uniforms, which also affected social norms and religious practices.  -​ The impact of Greek independence on art and nationalism: -​ The Greek War of Independence inspired art that promoted Greek nationalism and heroism, creating works that symbolized the struggle for independence. -​ History painting became popular during this period, capturing monumental moments of the newly independent Greek state. -​ Modernized Ottoman troops and bureaucracy: -​ By the late 19th century, the Ottoman military had adopted European-style uniforms, such as the fez, symbolizing the broader modernization of the empire. -​ Ottoman bureaucratic offices and officials' attire became increasingly European, reflecting the empire's shift towards Westernization during the Tanzimat period. 12-4b: The Qing Empire -​ The Qing Empire faced both internal and external challenges in the 19th century, yet no reform movement like those in the Ottoman Empire emerged. Key details include: -​ Lack of external pressure for reform: -​ The Qing emperors historically managed diplomatic challenges, such as those posed by Russia. -​ European admiration, exemplified by Jesuit comparisons to philosopher-kings, delayed systemic change. -​ The Macartney mission in 1793 shifted European opinions after the Qing rebuffed British efforts to expand trade relations. -​ Domestic crises: -​ The most pressing challenges were domestic, including rebellions by displaced indigenous groups and impoverished farmers. -​ Protests arose against corrupt or unjust local magistrates. -​ The "Canton system," which restricted and controlled foreign trade, frustrated European merchants. -​ Population strain and environmental impact: -​ Qing policies of agricultural expansion and infrastructure development supported significant population growth, doubling from 1650 to 1800.  -​ Population growth caused environmental degradation, displacement of indigenous groups, and a growing class of unemployed and homeless individuals. -​ Social unrest and distrust in government: -​ Grievances included displacement of minorities in central and southwestern China and Mongol resentment over lost grazing lands and political power. -​ Vigilante groups and village militias often replaced ineffective or corrupt Qing officials. -​ Foreign merchants and missionaries increased tensions, especially in Canton and Macao. -​ The White Lotus Rebellion (1794–1804): -​ The rebellion was inspired by messianic ideologies predicting the restoration of the Ming dynasty and the arrival of the Buddha. -​ It marked the start of numerous internal conflicts throughout the 1800s, driven by social instability, ethnic tensions, and unsanctioned religious movements. -​ Ethnic and local conflicts: -​ In some regions, the Qing were seen as foreign rulers and accused of collaborating with European interests. -​ Southern coastal populations, facing British aggression, used militia tactics to resist, highlighting local distrust of the central government. 12-5: Society and the Industrial Age -​ Local Effects of the Industrial Revolution: -​ Initially, the Industrial Revolution caused stark contrasts in living conditions: some individuals gained wealth and built luxurious homes, while others endured life in overcrowded slums with polluted water and air. -​ By the mid-1800s, urban reforms alleviated some of the worst effects, making cities cleaner and healthier environments. -​ Complex Challenges in Industrial Nations: -​ Industrialization introduced broader societal challenges, such as recurring business cycles, labor disputes, and widespread environmental damage caused by mining and industrial pollution. -​ Global Impact of Industrialization:  -​ Industrialized nations in western Europe and North America gained significant power, enabling them to dominate and exploit less developed regions globally. 12-5a: The New Industrial Cities -​ Urban Growth: -​ Industrialization caused unprecedented urban expansion. -​ London grew from 500,000 in 1700 to 2,685,000 by 1850, becoming the largest city in history at the time. -​ Manchester expanded from 20,000 in 1758 to 303,000 by 1850, a fifteen-fold increase. -​ New York City’s population rose from 100,000 in 1815 to 600,000 by 1850. -​ Urban regions merged into megalopolises in areas like Greater London, the English Midlands, central Belgium, and Germany’s Ruhr district. -​ Living Conditions: -​ Wealthy neighborhoods featured fine homes, churches, and cultural institutions, but the poorest neighborhoods grew too rapidly to sustain proper living conditions. -​ Migrants from rural areas lived in overcrowded, poorly built housing. -​ Environmental and Health Issues: -​ Urban environmental problems included: -​ Streets filled with sewage, trash, and animal waste. -​ Air pollution worsened by burning coal. -​ Water contamination from industrial runoff and sewage, exemplified by the River Irwell in Manchester. -​ Railroads brought noise, smoke, and congestion to urban centers. -​ New diseases emerged: -​ Rickets became common in children due to lack of sunlight in smoky cities. -​ Cholera epidemics, introduced via steamships from India, disproportionately affected the poor. -​ Social Class and Urban Design: -​ Housing often reflected vertical segregation by social class. -​ Lower levels housed caretakers and wealthy families, while upper floors were occupied by middle-class, working-class, and impoverished residents.  -​ In later years, neighborhoods became segregated by income levels rather than by building floors. -​ Urban Reforms: -​ Observers documented slum conditions, spurring municipal reforms: -​ Development of garbage removal, water, and sewage systems. -​ Construction of parks and schools. -​ These efforts began improving urban life after the mid-1800s. 12-5b: Working Conditions -​ Opportunities for Skilled Workers: -​ Carpenters, metalworkers, and machinists were in high demand during industrialization as their mechanical skills were essential for maintaining and building machines. -​ Some skilled workers advanced to become engineers or started their own businesses, capitalizing on the growing industrial economy. -​ Ambitious individuals often moved abroad, helping to establish industrial systems in Europe, the Americas, and India. -​ Challenges for the Majority: -​ Factory jobs required minimal skills, focusing on repetitive tasks that lacked variety and personal satisfaction. -​ The shift to factory systems meant work schedules were strictly regulated by clocks, replacing the natural rhythm of work based on daylight or seasons. -​ Workers had few breaks during long shifts and were closely monitored by foremen. -​ Performing the same task repeatedly often created feelings of detachment from the final product and a lack of accomplishment. -​ Industrial accidents were common and could devastate families who depended on a single income. -​ Impact on Women and Family Life: -​ Most women worked in roles that allowed them to stay close to home, such as sewing, laundry, and other small-scale domestic tasks. -​ Textile mills employed women for factory work because it required less physical strength than other industrial jobs, but wages were significantly lower than men’s. -​ Married women often worked outside the home when their husbands’ wages were insufficient to support the family.  -​ Mothers of infants faced difficult decisions, such as paying for wet nurses or bringing babies to factories and sedating them to keep them quiet. -​ Family dynamics shifted as husbands and wives frequently worked in separate places or on different schedules, reducing shared time. -​ Child Labor: -​ Children as young as five or six worked in factories and mines, often accompanying their parents due to the lack of public schools or childcare. -​ Employers preferred children because they were cheaper to hire, easier to manage, and physically capable of tasks like tying broken threads or fitting into tight spaces in machinery. -​ Many children worked 14 to 16 hours a day under harsh conditions and were punished for mistakes or falling asleep. -​ Mines employed children to pull coal carts through narrow tunnels, exposing them to severe physical strain and danger. -​ Attempts at Reform: -​ Some early industrialists, such as Francis Cabot Lowell, attempted to create better working conditions by hiring young women, offering them decent wages, dormitory housing, and moral oversight. -​ While these initiatives provided opportunities, they were quickly overtaken by competitive pressures, leading to extended hours, reduced wages, and harsher conditions. -​ Workers, including young women in New England factories, organized strikes to protest low wages and poor treatment. -​ Factory owners often replaced striking workers with impoverished immigrants who were willing to accept the conditions. -​ Slavery and the Cotton Economy: -​ The growth of the cotton industry fueled by industrialization reinforced and expanded slavery in the United States and beyond. -​ The enslaved population in the U.S. increased from 700,000 in the 1790s to 3.2 million by 1850, with 60 percent living in cotton-producing regions. -​ Many enslaved families were separated as individuals were sold and relocated from tobacco farms to cotton plantations. -​ The abolition of the transatlantic slave trade in 1808 reduced imports of enslaved people, but natural population growth and illegal trade sustained the system.  -​ Slavery persisted in other regions, including sugar plantations in the West Indies and coffee plantations in Brazil, driven by European demand for these goods. -​ Despite abolitionist efforts, slavery remained deeply intertwined with the profitability of industrial capitalism. 12-5c: The Rich and the Poor -​ Benjamin Disraeli’s Perspective: -​ Disraeli described a deep divide between the rich and poor, who were disconnected from each other’s lives. -​ The Struggles of the Working Class: -​ Skilled workers in traditional industries, like handloom weavers, faced falling wages due to mechanization. -​ Factory workers had low wages, long hours, and little job security, but factory work was still better than rural jobs for many. -​ Economic Struggles and Improvements: -​ The poor spent most of their income on food and shelter. Wages rose in the 1820s, improving living standards. -​ The Irish potato famine in the 1840s worsened conditions, leading to migration and lower wages. -​ The Rise of the Middle Class: -​ Entrepreneurs from humble backgrounds became wealthy through manufacturing. -​ Many industrialists entered higher social classes, and the middle class led reform efforts in the mid-1800s. -​ Technological Advances and Their Social Impact: -​ The Industrial Revolution shifted societies from rural to industrial, using power machinery to increase production. -​ This led to urban migration, and children took factory jobs to support their families. 12-5d: Middle-Class Women’s “Separate Sphere” -​ Victorian Ideals: -​ The Victorian Age (1850-1901) emphasized separate roles for men and women.  -​ Men were associated with public life, while women were expected to focus on home and family. -​ Middle-class families idealized the home as a peaceful refuge from the competitive world. -​ Women’s Roles and Work: -​ Middle-class women were responsible for raising children and managing the home. -​ Many women from less privileged classes worked outside the home for wages or took in piecework to support their families. -​ Middle-class homes required servants to manage household tasks, reflecting a family’s social status. -​ Education and Marriage: -​ Girls received education that focused on social graces, while boys were prepared for business or professions. -​ Middle-class women typically worked until marriage and were expected to focus on family life afterward. -​ Work Opportunities for Women: -​ Women could work in stores and offices but not in factories. -​ With the introduction of typewriters and telephones, women found work in these areas due to lower wages and better skillsets. -​ Few women had access to professional careers, and higher education for women was limited. -​ Women’s Activism and Suffrage: -​ Some women sought more fulfilling roles outside the home, working as volunteer nurses or social workers. -​ A few women, like Emmeline Pankhurst and Susan B. Anthony, campaigned for women’s suffrage, challenging political and gender hierarchies. -​ By 1914, women in some countries gained the right to vote, but full suffrage was not achieved everywhere until later. 12-5e: Middle-Class Women’s “Separate Sphere” -​ Victorian Ideals: -​ The Victorian Age (1850-1901) emphasized separate roles for men and women.  -​ Men were associated with public life, while women were expected to focus on home and family. -​ Middle-class families idealized the home as a peaceful refuge from the competitive world. -​ Women’s Roles and Work: -​ Middle-class women were responsible for raising children and managing the home. -​ - Many women from less privileged classes worked outside the home for wages or took in piecework to support their families. -​ - Middle-class homes required servants to manage household tasks, reflecting a family’s social status. -​ Education and Marriage: -​ Girls received education that focused on social graces, while boys were prepared for business or professions. -​ Middle-class women typically worked until marriage and were expected to focus on family life afterward. -​ Work Opportunities for Women: -​ Women could work in stores and offices but not in factories. -​ With the introduction of typewriters and telephones, women found work in these areas due to lower wages and better skillsets. -​ Few women had access to professional careers, and higher education for women was limited. -​ Women’s Activism and Suffrage: -​ Some women sought more fulfilling roles outside the home, working as volunteer nurses or social workers. -​ A few women, like Emmeline Pankhurst and Susan B. Anthony, campaigned for women’s suffrage, challenging political and gender hierarchies. -​ By 1914, women in some countries gained the right to vote, but full suffrage was not achieved everywhere until later. 12-5f: Environmental Problems -​ Air Pollution and Urban Life: -​ Industrialization worsened air quality due to coal-burning steam engines and heating systems.  -​ “Pea-soup" fogs and grimy dust were common, and horse waste contributed to unpleasant street odors. -​ Electric motors and lamps later helped alleviate some pollution as they didn’t produce harmful emissions. -​ Impact on Industrial Regions: -​ Areas like the English Midlands and the Ruhr in Germany became heavily polluted by steel mills, coal-burning steam engines, and waste. -​ Cities like Manchester were shrouded in smog, with rivers polluted by industrial waste. -​ Sanitation and Disease: -​ Rapid urban growth overwhelmed sanitation systems, leading to health hazards. -​ The “Great Stink” in 1858 occurred due to untreated waste in the Thames River, prompting the construction of a new sewer system. -​ Pollution contributed to deadly diseases like typhoid and cholera, with outbreaks causing thousands of deaths. -​ Environmental Impact of Industrialization: -​ Industrialization led to severe environmental damage, including air and water pollution. -​ The coal smoke from engines and factories, along with toxic waste dumped into rivers, contributed to widespread pollution. -​ The poorest populations often suffered the most from environmental degradation and health problems.