AP Study Guide - Cellular Metabolism & Breathing PDF

### Ch 9 study guide #### **1. CO₂ as a Byproduct of Cellular Metabolism** - ### Carbon dioxide (CO₂) is produced as a byproduct during cellular metabolism when cells use oxygen for energy. - ### CO₂ needs to be removed from the body to maintain proper pH and avoid acidosis. #### 2. **How CO...

### Ch 9 study guide #### **1. CO₂ as a Byproduct of Cellular Metabolism** - ### Carbon dioxide (CO₂) is produced as a byproduct during cellular metabolism when cells use oxygen for energy. - ### CO₂ needs to be removed from the body to maintain proper pH and avoid acidosis. #### 2. **How CO₂ is Transported in the Blood** ### **CO₂ is carried in the blood in three main ways:** 1. ### Dissolved in Plasma (8%): A small amount of CO₂ is transported directly in the blood plasma. 2. ### Bound to Proteins, including Hemoglobin (12%): CO₂ binds to proteins, particularly hemoglobin, to be transported in the blood. 3. ### Ionized as Bicarbonate (HCO₃⁻) (80%): The majority of CO₂ is converted into bicarbonate ions, which is the primary method of CO₂ transport in the blood. #### 3. **Formula for Dissolved CO₂** - ### To calculate the amount of CO₂ dissolved in plasma, the formula is: ### Dissolved CO₂ (mmol/L)=PCO2×0.03 ### This shows that the dissolved CO₂ concentration in blood is proportional to the partial pressure of CO₂ (PₐCO₂). #### 4. **The Bohr Effect** - ### The Bohr effect explains how CO₂ and H⁺ ions affect hemoglobin's affinity for oxygen. - ### When CO₂ levels increase, it leads to a rightward shift in the oxyhemoglobin dissociation curve, reducing hemoglobin's affinity for oxygen. - ### This shift helps release oxygen from hemoglobin, allowing more oxygen to be delivered to the tissues where CO₂ levels are higher. #### 5**. The Haldane Effect** - ### The Haldane effect explains how oxygen levels affect hemoglobin's ability to carry CO₂. - ### When O₂ levels increase, it causes CO₂ to detach from hemoglobin. This is important in the lungs, where oxygenation occurs, allowing CO₂ to be released and exhaled. - ### Essentially, oxygen determines hemoglobin's affinity for CO₂. The more oxygen there is, the less CO₂ is bound to hemoglobin, and vice versa. #### 6. **Clinical Relevance: CO₂ Curve vs O₂ Curve** - ### The CO₂ dissociation curve is relatively more linear than the O₂ dissociation curve. - ### This means that changes in ventilation can easily manipulate CO₂ levels, making it more responsive to ventilatory adjustments compared to oxygen levels. - ### This is why CO₂ levels are often targeted in ventilatory therapy to maintain pH balance. #### 7. **CO₂ Reaction in the Lungs and Tissues** - ### CO₂ is converted into carbonic acid (H₂CO₃) in tissues: ### CO2+H2O→H2CO3 ### In the lungs, this reaction is reversed, allowing CO₂ to be released and exhaled. #### 8. **Relationship Between CO₂ and pH** - ### CO₂ and pH are inversely proportional: - ### Increased CO₂ leads to an increase in hydrogen ions (H⁺), which lowers the pH (making the blood more acidic). - ### Decreased CO₂ leads to a decrease in H⁺, which raises the pH (making the blood more alkaline). #### 9. **Regulation of CO₂ Through Ventilation** - ### The body regulates CO₂ levels through ventilation: - ### Increased ventilation (hyperventilation): Causes CO₂ to be blown off, leading to decreased CO₂ levels in the blood, which increases pH (more alkaline). - ### Decreased ventilation (hypoventilation): Causes CO₂ to accumulate, leading to increased CO₂ levels in the blood, which lowers pH (more acidic). - ### Ventilatory control is crucial for maintaining proper acid-base balance in the body. ### ### **Key Concepts to Remember** - ### **CO₂ transport: Mostly as bicarbonate (80%), some in plasma (8%) and bound to proteins (12%).** - ### **Bohr Effect: More CO₂ promotes oxygen release from hemoglobin to tissues.** - ### **Haldane Effect: More O₂ promotes CO₂ release from hemoglobin in the lungs.** - ### **CO₂ curve is linear: Making CO₂ easier to regulate via ventilation compared to oxygen.** - ### **CO₂ and pH: Inversely related---more CO₂ means lower pH (acidosis), and less CO₂ means higher pH (alkalosis).** - ### **Ventilation is how the body adjusts CO₂ levels to maintain pH balance.** ### ### ### ### ### **Ch 10 : Study Guide: Acid-Base Balance and Buffer Systems** #### **1. Basic Concepts of Acids and Bases** - - - - - - - #### **2. pH and Hydrogen Ions** - - - - - #### **3. Buffer Systems** - - - - - - - - #### **4. Hydrogen Ion Formation** - - - #### **5. Henderson-Hasselbalch (H-H) Equation** - pH=6.1+log⁡(\[HCO3−\](PaCO2×0.003) It shows the balance between: - - #### **6. Roles of the Lungs and Kidneys in Acid-Base Balance** - - - - - - - - - #### **7. Respiratory and Metabolic Acid-Base Disorders** - - - - ### **Summary** - - - ### **Ch 11: Study Guide: Control of Breathing and Respiratory Centers** #### **1. Medulla and Pons: Control of Breathing** - - - - #### **2. Dorsal Respiratory Group (DRG)** - - - - #### **3. Ventral Respiratory Group (VRG)** - - - - - - #### **4. Inspiratory Ramp Signals** - - #### **5. Pons Respiratory Centers** - - - - - #### **6. Hering-Breuer Reflex** - - - #### **7. Central Chemoreceptors** - - - - - #### **8. Peripheral Chemoreceptors** - - - #### **9. Control of Breathing in Severe COPD** - - #### **10. Oxygen-Induced Hypercapnia** - #### **11. Abnormal Breathing Patterns** - - - - - - ### **Key Terms to Remember:** - - - - - - - - - - ### **Ch 12: Gas Exchange and the V/Q Ratio Study Guide** ### **1. Importance of the V/Q Ratio for Gas Exchange** - - - - ### **2. Hypothetical Extremes in V/Q Ratio** - - - - ### **3. Shunts and Dead Space** - - - - - - ### **4. V/Q Distribution in the Lungs** - - - - - ### **5. Hypoventilation Effects on PaO₂ and PaCO₂** - - - - ### **6. Normal Gas Exchange Values** - - - - - ### **7. Types of Shunts in Gas Exchange** - - - - ### **8. Common Cause of V/Q Mismatch: Hypoxemia** - - ### **9. Dead Space Due to Excessive Ventilation** - - - - ### **10. Increased V/Q Ratio and Its Impact on Gas Exchange** - - - Ch 13 study guide:3 ways to calculate ABG interpretations : classification, calculation and confirmation The systematic classification consist of 3 steps 1: classify ph is it alkalotic or acidotic 2: analyze pco2 35-35 mmhg is normal Greater than 45 hypercapnia acidosis Less than 35 hypocapnia which mena alkalotic 3: look at bicarb 22-26 is normal Greater 26 is a high bicarb which means alkalotic Less than 22 is a low bicarb which means acidotic 4: asess for compensation Fully compensated means ph is normal but both pco2 and hco3 is abnormal Partially compensated means ph, Paco2, HCO3 are all abnormal Uncompensated means pH is abnormal and 1 of the other values is also abnormal. ### **Types of Acid-Base Disturbances** 1. - - - 2. - - - - 3. - - - 4. - - - ### **Study Guide for Acid-Base Balance** 1. - 2. - 3. - 4. - - - - -