A&P Lecture Cell PDF

Human Body Anatomy Physiology Princess Lilac Velasquez-Dacanay, RN, MD College of Nursing University of Assumption Systems of the Human Body 1. Integumentary System Systems of the Human Body 2. Skeletal System Systems of the Human Body 3. Muscular System Systems of the Human Body 4. Nervou...

Human Body Anatomy Physiology Princess Lilac Velasquez-Dacanay, RN, MD College of Nursing University of Assumption Systems of the Human Body 1. Integumentary System Systems of the Human Body 2. Skeletal System Systems of the Human Body 3. Muscular System Systems of the Human Body 4. Nervous System Systems of the Human Body 5. Endocrine System Systems of the Human Body 6. Cardiovascular System Systems of the Human Body 7. Lymphatic System Systems of the Human Body 8. Respiratory System Systems of the Human Body 9. Digestive System Systems of the Human Body 10. Urinary System Systems of the Human Body 11. Reproductive System BASIC LIFE PROCESSES METABOLISM RESPONSIVENESS MOVEMENT GROWTH DIFFERENTIATION REPRODUCE Homeostasis Body Fluids FEEDBACK SYSTEMS FEEDBACK SYSTEMS Negative Feedback Positive Feedback Quick Review What is the main goal of a positive feedback? a. To restore homeostasis b. To return body parameter to the setpoint c. To intensify body parameters until there is an interruption Quick Review TRUE or FALSE: Homeostasis is the maintenance of dynamic internal stability TRUE HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCE ENVIRONMENT GENETICS LIFESTYLE AND PHYSIOLOGIC BEHAVIOR CHANGES  DISORDER DISEASE → abnormality of structure → recognizable set of signs or function and symptoms ❖ Local disease ❖ Systemic Disease  SIGNS SYMPTOMS → objective → subjective → observable, measured → not apparent to → rash, fever, blood observer pressure, edema → headache, nausea, anxiety Anatomical Terminologies  “ “You taught me a secret language I can’t speak with anyone else…” ” 24 PRONE POSITION SUPINE POSITION REGIONAL NAMES SUPERIOR INFERIOR ANTERIOR POSTERIOR MEDIAL LATERAL INTERMEDIATE IPSILATERAL CONTRALATERAL PROXIMAL DISTAL SUPERFICIAL DEEP DORSAL PALMAR/PLANTAR BODY CAVITIES BODY CAVITIES ABDOMINOPELVIC REGIONS AND QUADRANTS ABDOMINOPELVIC REGIONS AND QUADRANTS BODY MOVEMENTS BODY MOVEMENTS BODY MOVEMENTS BODY MOVEMENTS BODY MOVEMENTS BODY MOVEMENTS BODY MOVEMENTS BODY MOVEMENTS BODY MOVEMENTS Quick Review What term best describes a face-down orientation? a. Inferior b. Prone c. Lateral d. Proximal Here’s your cup of positivi-tea! :) 52 The Human Body Recipe College of Nursing University of Assumption CHEMISTRY - Science of structure and interactions of matter ❖ Solid - compact, definition shape and volume ❖ Liquid - definite volume, assume shape of container ❖ Gas - neither definite shape or volume HUMAN BODY MAJOR LESSER TRACE ELEMENTS ELEMENTS ELEMENTS Oxygen Calcium Aluminum Carbon Phosphorus Boron Hydrogen Potassium Chromium Nitrogen Sulfur Cobalt Chlorine Copper Magnesium Fluorine Iron Iodine Manganese etc CHEMICAL REACTION - Occurs when new bonds form or old bonds break between atoms METABOLISM - Refers to all chemical reactions occurring in the body ENERGY - Capacity to do work POTENTIAL ENERGY - Stored energy due to its position KINETIC ENERGY - Matter in motion CHEMICAL ENERGY - Stored in bonds of compounds and molecules  EXERGONIC ENDERGONIC REACTIONS REACTIONS - Release > absorb energy - Absorb > release energy - EXO = EXIT - ENDER = ENTER concentration temperature SYNTHESIS REACTIONS - Two or more molecules combine to form new molecules - “To put together” - ANABOLISM → endergonic DECOMPOSITION REACTIONS - Split large molecules into smaller molecules - CATABOLISM → exergonic EXCHANGE REACTIONS - Consist of both synthesis and decomposition reactions REVERSIBLE REACTIONS - Products may revert to original reactants OXIDATION-REDUCTION REACTIONS - Oxidation → loss of electrons - Reduction → gain of electrons - Always parallel BIOMOLECULES CARBOHYDRATES - Main source of energy for humans ❖ Monosaccharides ❖ Disaccharides ❖ Polysaccharides FUNCTIONS OF CARBOHYDRATES 1) Main source of energy in the body 2) Storage form of energy 3) Excess carbohydrate is converted to fat 4) Glycoproteins and glycolipids are components of cell membranes and receptors 5) Structural basis of many organisms CARBOHYDRATES Glucose, Fructose, Galactose, Deoxyribose, Monosaccharides Ribose Disaccharides Sucrose, Lactose, Maltose Polysaccharides Glycogen, Starch, Cellulose LIPIDS - Store energy for later use - Hydrophobic ❖ Fatty acid ❖ Triglycerides ❖ Phospholipids ❖ Steroids ❖ Fat-soluble vitamins FUNCTIONS OF LIPIDS 1) Storage of energy 2) Structural component of biomembranes 3) Metabolic regulators 4) Acts as surfactants, detergents, and emulsifying agents 5) Act as electric insulators in neurons 6) Provide insulation against changes in external temperature 7) Give shape, contour and protection to the body 8) Help in absorption of fat soluble vitamins 9) Improve palatability of food CLINICAL APPLICATIONS OF LIPIDS 1) Excessive fat deposits cause obesity 1) Abnormality in cholesterol and lipoprotein metabolism leads to cardiovascular diseases 1) In DM, deranged metabolism may lead to ketosis LIPIDS Synthesize triglycerides and phospholipids → Fatty Acids ATP production Triglycerides Protection, insulation, energy storage Phospholipids Major lipid component of cell membranes LIPIDS Cholesterol, Bile salts, Vitamin D, Adrenocortical Steroids hormones, sex hormones Eicosanoids Prostaglandins, leukotrienes Others Carotenes, Vitamin E, Vitamin K, Lipoproteins PROTEINS 1. Form structural framework of the body 2. Acts as hormones that regulate various physiological processes 3. Muscle contraction and movement 4. Immunologic function to protect the body 5. Transportation of vital substances 6. Catalytic role in regulating biochemical reactions ENZYMES - Apoenzyme: protein portion - Cofactor: nonprotein portion 1) Highly specific 2) Very efficient 3) Subject to variety of cellular controls CLASSIFICATION OF ENZYMES Oxidoreductase Transfer of hydrogen or addition of oxygen Transferases Transfer of groups other than hydrogen Hydrolases Cleave bond and add water; Lyases Cleave without adding water Isomerases Intramolecular transfers. Ligases ATP dependent condensation of two molecules NUCLEIC ACIDS - Huge organic molecules - Contains carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and phosphorus - Chain of long repeating monomers → nucleotides DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC RIBONUCLEIC ACID ACID (DNA) (RNA) - Inherited genetic materials - Relays instructions from - gene the gene to guide each cell’s synthesis from AA  DNA vs RNA DNA RNA Nitrogenous bases Adenine, Cytosine, Guanine, Thymine Adenine, Cytosine, Guanine, Uracil Sugar in nucleotides Deoxyribose Ribose Number of strands two one Nitrogenous base pairing A-T, G-C A-U, G-C Replication Self-replicating DNA blueprint Encodes information for making Carries genetic code and assists in Function protein making proteins Types Nuclear, mitochondrial mRNA, tRNA, rRNA Cellular Level of Organization PLASMA MEMBRANE - Fluid mosaic model FUNCTIONS: 1. Acts as a barrier 2. Controls flow of substances in/out of cell 3. Help identify other cells 4. Intercellular signaling LIPID BILAYER - Layers are made of phospholipids, cholesterol, and glycolipids MEMBRANE PROTEINS - Integral or peripheral FUNCTIONS OF MEMBRANE PROTEINS 1. Formation of selective ion channels FUNCTIONS OF MEMBRANE PROTEINS 2. Act as carriers or transporters FUNCTIONS OF MEMBRANE PROTEINS 3. Act as receptors or cellular recognition sites FUNCTIONS OF MEMBRANE PROTEINS 4. Serves as enzymes that catalyzes specific reactions FUNCTIONS OF MEMBRANE PROTEINS 5. Serves as linkers that anchors filaments in plasma membrane FUNCTIONS OF MEMBRANE PROTEINS 6. Acts as a cell-identifying marker MEMBRANE FLUIDITY DIFFUSION FACILITATED SIMPLE DIFFUSION OSMOSIS DIFFUSION Driven by Movement of solvent Carrier mediated concentration through selective process gradient permeability Occurs from higher Occurs from higher Solute binds to concentration to concentration to specific carrier lower concentration lower concentration OSMOTIC PRESSURE HYPOTONIC HYPERTONIC ISOTONIC SOLUTION SOLUTION SOLUTION ACTIVE TRANSPORT - Movement of substances against concentration gradient - Requires energy ❖ SOURCES OF ENERGY 1) ATP - primary active transport 2) Ionic concentration gradient - secondary active transport PRIMARY ACTIVE TRANSPORT - Substances move across membrane against its concentration by pumps or carriers using ATP - Example: Na-K pump SECONDARY ACTIVE TRANSPORT - Coupled active transport of two substances across the membrane using energy supplied by Na+ or H+ concentration gradient maintained by primary active transport pumps. ENDOCYTOSIS - Movement of substances into a cell in vesicle PHAGOCYTOSIS - “Cell-eating” - Movement of solid particle into a cell after pseudopods engulf it to form phagosome EXOCYTOSIS - Movement of substances out of a cell in secretory vesicles that fuse with plasma membrane and release their contents into ECF CYTOPLASM - intracellular fluid - site of many chemical reactions for cell functioning ❖ CYTOSKELETON a. Serves as scaffold that helps determine cell shape b. Aids in movement if organelles within the cell CYTOPLASM CENTROSOME - Microtubule organizing center - Location: near nucleus ❖ Centrioles ❖ Pericentriolar matrix - Contains tubulins that build microtubules in nondividing cells - Forms mitotic spindle during cell division CILIA AND FLAGELLA - Motile projections of cell surface RIBOSOMES - Site of protein synthesis 1. Ribosomes associated with ER synthesize proteins destined for insertion in the plasma membrane or secretion from the cell. 2. Free ribosomes synthesize proteins used in the cytosol. ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM - Membranes in flattened sac form - Under electron microscope: railway track appearance ❖ ROUGH ER - Due to ribosome attached to cytoplasmic side of membrane ❖ SMOOTH ER - Has no ribosome - Synthesize fatty acids and steroids ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM GOLGI COMPLEX - Network of flattened sooth membranes - Converging area of ER - Main function: protein sorting, packaging and secretion ★ Cis - proximal ★ Medial - intermediate ★ Trans - distal GOLGI COMPLEX LYSOSOMES - membrane -enclosed vesicles that form the Golgi complex ❖ AUTOPHAGY - Engulfing another organelle, digest it, and return digested components in cytosol PEROXISOMES - “Microbodies” - Contains oxidases that removes hydrogen atoms from organic substances - Abundant in liver → detoxification - Contains catalase that decompose H2O2 - Can self-replicate PROTEASOMES - Continuous destruction of unneeded and damaged proteins - Contain proteases → proteins to small peptides MITOCHONDRIA - “Powerhouses” of the cell - Generate ATP through reactions of aerobic cellular respiration - Role in apoptosis NUCLEUS - most prominent feature of a cell a. Controls cellular structure b. Directs cellular activities c. Produces ribosomes in nucleoli NUCLEUS NUCLEUS PROTEIN SYNTHESIS KEY STEPS: 1) Transcription 2) Translation TRANSCRIPTION TRANSCRIPTION 1) Messenger RNA (mRNA) - Directs synthesis of protein 1) Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) - Joins the ribosomal proteins to make ribosomes 1) Transfer RNA (tRNA) - Binds to amino acid and holds it in place on a ribosome until it is incorporated into a protein during translation TRANSLATION CELL DIVISION - Process by which cells reproduce themselves a. SOMATIC CELL DIVISION b. REPRODUCTIVE CELL DIVISION SOMATIC CELL DIVISION CELL CYCLE MITOTIC PHASE  Importance of the M phase Phase Description Prophase Chromatin condenses into visible chromosomes, the nuclear envelope breaks down, and the mitotic spindle forms Prometaphase The chromosomes attach to the spindle fibers and begin to move towards the center of the cell Metaphase The chromosomes align at the equator of the cell, forming the metaphase plate Anaphase The sister chromatids separate and move towards opposite poles of the cell Telophase The chromosomes reach the poles of the cell, the nuclear envelope reforms, and the chromosomes begin to decondense Cytokinesis The cytoplasm divides, resulting in two daughter cells with identical genetic material  SOMATIC CELL CYCLE G1 Phase S Phase G2 Phase Mitosis Cytokinesis APOPTOSIS NECROSIS ➔ Normal type of cell ➔ Pathological cell death death ➔ Tissue injury ➔ No inflammatory ➔ Debris may trigger response inflammatory response REPRODUCTIVE CELL DIVISION  Basic differences mitosis - meiosis Mitosis Meiosis Type of reproduction Asexual Sexual Count of daughter cells 2 daughters 4 daughters Altered number of chromosomes Same Halved Count of cell division cycles 1 division 2 divisions FERTILIZATION - Gametes merge to form zygote QUIZ