AP I Lec # 1, Intro to Anatomy & Physiology - 2012 - Lecture Notes PDF

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.  1-1 Anatomy and Physiology Directly Affect Your Life Anatomy and physiology affect our life everyday Anatomy is the oldest medical science(1600 B.C.) Anatomy:Is the science of Body structure Describes the structures of the body Where th...

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.  1-1 Anatomy and Physiology Directly Affect Your Life Anatomy and physiology affect our life everyday Anatomy is the oldest medical science(1600 B.C.) Anatomy:Is the science of Body structure Describes the structures of the body Where they are located? What they are made of? Associated structures? Physiology: Is the science of body function. Is the study of Functions of anatomical structures Individual and cooperative functions Anatomy and Physiology of the body are closely related. Each body part is adapted for carrying out specific function ie Stomach has muscular wall well suited for churning & breaking the food. It’s lining produces substances that breakdown the food chemically. 98% of the body is composed of only 6 elements Oxygen- 65, Carbon-18, hydrogen-10, Nitrogen-3, Calcium-1.5 and Phosphorus-1 Others are K, S, Na, Mg, Cl, Fe, I © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 1-4 Relationships between Anatomy and Physiology Macroscopic/Gross anatomy: examines large, visible structures Surface anatomy: exterior features Regional anatomy: body areas Systemic anatomy: groups of organs working together Developmental anatomy: from conception to death Clinical anatomy: medical specialties Microscopic anatomy : examines cells and molecules Cytology: study of cells and their structures (cyt= cell Histology: study of tissues and their structures © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.  Branches of Anatomy & Physiology: Comparison Anatomy Surface anatomy: exterior features Regional anatomy: body areas Systemic anatomy: organ systems Developmental anatomy: from conception to death Clinical anatomy: medical specialties Physiology Cell physiology: processes within and between cells Organ physiology: functions of specific organs Systemic physiology: functions of an organ system Pathological physiology: effects of diseases © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Levels of Organization 1.The Chemical (or Molecular) Level Atoms are the smallest chemical units Molecules are a group of atoms working together 2.The Cellular Level Cells are a group of atoms, molecules, and organelles working together 3.The Tissue Level Tissues are a group of similar cells working together 4.The Organ Level A group of different tissues working together 5.The Organ System Level Organ systems are a group of organs working together Humans have 11 organ systems 6.The Organism Level A human is an organism © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Levels of organization © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.  Anatomical Position Body erect Feet slightly apart Palms facing forward Thumbs point away from body © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1.7a Anatomical position © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.  Regional Terms: Anterior View Axial – head, neck, and trunk Appendicular – appendages or limbs Specific regional terminology © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1.7a © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1-7 Directional References Cranial Superior Right Left Proximal Posterior Anterior or dorsal or ventral Lateral Medial Caudal Proximal Distal Distal Inferior A lateral view. An anterior view. Arrows indicate important directional terms used in this text; definitions and descriptions are given in Table 12. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.  Directional Terms Table 1.1 © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Directional Terms Proximal and distal – closer to and farther from the origin of the body Superficial and deep – toward and away from the body surface © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Directional Terms Superior and inferior – toward and away from the head, respectively Anterior and posterior – toward the front and back of the body Medial, lateral, and intermediate – toward the midline, away from the midline, and between a more medial and lateral structure © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1-1 Levels of Organization Organ system Organism level level Organ Level Tissue Level Cardiac muscle The heart tissue The cardiovascular system © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.  1) Anatomy is to ________ as physiology is to ________. A) function; form B) form; structure C) structure; function Answer: C D) structure; form E) growth; form 2) The study of the function of specific organ systems is called A) systemic physiology. B) organ physiology. C) cell physiology. Answer: A D) pathological physiology. E) histology. 3) Which of the following is arranged in correct order from the simplest to the most complex? A) cellular, tissue, molecular, system, organ, organism B) molecular, cellular, tissue, organ, system, organism C) tissue, cellular, molecular, organ, system, organism D) organ, organism, molecular, cellular, tissue, system E) organism, system, organ, tissue, cellular, molecular Answer: E © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 1-5 Levels of Organization The Organ Systems 1. Integumentary Major Organs Skin Hair Sweat glands Nails Functions Protects against environmental hazards Helps regulate body temperature Provides sensory information © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 1-5 Levels of Organization The Organ Systems 2. Skeletal Major Organs Bones Cartilages Associated ligaments Bone marrow Functions Provides support and protection for other tissues Stores calcium and other minerals Forms blood cells © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 1-5 Levels of Organization The Organ Systems 3. Muscular Major Organs Skeletal muscles and associated tendons Functions Provides movement Provides protection and support for other tissues Generates heat that maintains body temperature © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 1-5 Levels of Organization The Organ Systems 4. Nervous Major Organs Brain Spinal cord Peripheral nerves Sense organs Functions Directs immediate responses to stimuli Coordinates or moderates activities of other organ systems Provides and interprets sensory information about external conditions © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 1-5 Levels of Organization The Organ Systems 5. Endocrine Major Organs Pituitary gland Thyroid gland Pancreas Adrenal glands Gonads Endocrine tissues in other systems Functions Directs long-term changes in the activities of other organ systems Adjusts metabolic activity and energy use by the body Controls many structural and functional changes during development © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 1-5 Levels of Organization The Organ Systems 6. Cardiovascular Major Organs Heart Blood Blood vessels Functions Distributes blood cells, water and dissolved materials including nutrients, waste products, oxygen, and carbon dioxide Distributes heat and assists in control of body temperature © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 1-5 Levels of Organization The Organ Systems 7. Lymphatic Major Organs Spleen Thymus Lymphatic vessels Lymph nodes Tonsils Functions Defends against infection and disease Returns tissue fluids to the bloodstream © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 1-5 Levels of Organization The Organ Systems 8. Respiratory Major Organs Nasal cavities Sinuses Larynx Trachea Bronchi Lungs Alveoli © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 1-5 Levels of Organization The Organ Systems Respiratory Functions Delivers air to alveoli (sites in lungs where gas exchange occurs) Provides oxygen to bloodstream Removes carbon dioxide from bloodstream Produces sounds for communication © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Levels of Organization The Organ Systems Digestive Major Organs Teeth, Tongue Pharynx Esophagus Stomach Small intestine Large intestine Liver Gallbladder Pancreas Functions Processes and digests food Absorbs and conserves water Absorbs nutrients Stores energy reserves © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 1-5 Levels of Organization The Organ Systems 10. Urinary Major Organs Kidneys Ureters Urinary bladder Urethra Functions Excretes waste products from the blood Controls water balance by regulating volume of urine produced Stores urine prior to voluntary elimination Regulates blood ion concentrations and pH © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 1-5 Levels of Organization Male Reproductive Major Organs Testes Epididymides Ductus deferentia Seminal vesicles Prostate gland Penis Scrotum © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 1-5 Levels of Organization The Organ Systems 12. Female Reproductive Major Organs Ovaries Uterine tubes Uterus Vagina Labia Clitoris Mammary glands © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 1-5 Levels of Organization The Organ Systems Female Reproductive Functions Produces female sex cells (oocytes) and hormones Supports developing embryo from conception to delivery Provides milk to nourish newborn infant Sexual intercourse © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 1) Which organ system provides support, protection of soft tissue, mineral storage, and blood formation? A) integumentary B) muscular C) skeletal Answer: C D) nervous E) endocrine 2) Which organ system includes the spleen and the tonsils? A) digestive B) endocrine C) nervous D) cardiovascular Answer: E E) lymphatic 3) The kidneys and ureters are organs of the ________ system. A) endocrine B) digestive C) respiratory Answer: D D) urinary E) Lymphatic © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. An Introduction to Studying the Human Body Classification of Living Things Humans and many other animals are vertebrates Characterized by a segmented vertebral column Common characteristics suggest the same path in evolution Homeostasis The goal of physiological regulation and the key to survival in a changing environment © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 1-6 Homeostasis Homeostasis All body systems working together to maintain a stable internal environment Systems respond to external and internal changes to function within a normal range (body temperature, fluid balance) © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 1-6 Homeostasis Mechanisms of Regulation Autoregulation (intrinsic) Automatic response in a cell, tissue, or organ to some environmental change Extrinsic regulation Responses controlled by nervous and endocrine systems © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Homeostasis Biotechnology: Growing cells outside body under artificially maintained conditions. Factors Required: Temperature, pH, Nutrients, O₂, H₂O, etc. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.  1-6 Homeostasis Receptor Receives the stimulus: Temperature sensors in skin Control center Processes the signal and sends instructions: Brain Effector Carries out instructions: Sweat glands © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1-2 The Control of Room Temperature RECEPTOR Information Normal Thermometer affects condition disturbed STIMULUS: Room temperature rises HOMEOSTASIS CONTROL CENTER (Thermostat) Air Air Normal room temperature conditioner conditioner Room temperature (°C) turns on turns off RESPONSE: Room temperature 20° 30° 40° drops Normal 22 range Normal condition EFFECTOR Sends restored Air conditioner commands turns on to Time In response to input from a receptor (a thermometer), a thermostat With this regulatory system, room (the control center) triggers an effector response (either an air condi- temperature fluctuates around the tioner or a heater) that restores normal temperature. In this case, set point. when room temperature rises above the set point, the thermostat turns on the air conditioner, and the temperature returns to normal. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 1-7 Negative and Positive Feedback The Role of Negative Feedback The response of the effector negates the stimulus Body is brought back into homeostasis Normal range is achieved © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1-3 Negative Feedback in the Control of Body Temperature RECEPTORS Temperature Information sensors in skin affects Normal and temperature hypothalamus CONTROL disturbed CENTER STIMULUS: Body temperature rises HOMEOSTASIS Thermoregulatory Normal body center in brain Vessels Vessels temperature dilate, constrict, RESPONSE: sweating sweating Increased heat loss, increases decreases body temperature Body temperature (°C) drops Normal EFFECTORS 37.2 Sends Normal temperature 37 range Sweat glands commands restored in skin increase 36.7 to secretion Blood vessels in skin dilate Time Events in the regulation of body temperature, which are The thermoregulatory center keeps comparable to those shown in Figure 12. A control center body temperature fluctuating in the brain (the hypothalamus) functions as a thermostat within an acceptable range, usually with a set point of 37°C. If body temperature exceeds between 36.7 and 37.2°C. 37.2°C, heat loss is increased through enhanced blood flow to the skin and increased sweating. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 1-7 Negative and Positive Feedback The Role of Positive Feedback The response of the effector increases change of the stimulus Body is moved away from homeostasis Normal range is lost Used to speed up processes © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1-4 Positive Feedback: Blood Clotting Clotting accelerates Positive feedback loop Chemicals Blood clot Chemicals Damage to cells in the The chemicals start chain As clotting continues, This escalating process blood vessel wall releases reactions in which cells, each step releases is a positive feedback chemicals that begin the cell fragments, and chemicals that further loop that ends with the process of blood clotting. soluble proteins in the accelerate the process. formation of a blood clot, blood begin to form a clot. which patches the vessel wall and stops the bleeding. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 1-7 Negative and Positive Feedback Systems Integration Systems work together to maintain homeostasis Homeostasis is a state of equilibrium Opposing forces are in balance Dynamic equilibrium — continual adaptation Physiological systems work to restore balance Failure results in disease or death © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Table 1-1 The Roles of Organ Systems in Homeostatic Regulation © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Table 1-1 The Roles of Organ Systems in Homeostatic Regulation © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 1) If a response increases a disturbance, the control system is classified as a ________ feedback system. A) deficit B) negative Answer: E C) neutral D) polarized E) positive 2) The integrating center for the negative feedback loop that regulates body temperature is the A) hypothalamus. B) skin. C) temperature sensor. Answer: A D) positive feedback center. E) thermostat. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 1-8 Anatomical Terminology Superficial Anatomy : Locating structures on or near the body surface Anatomical Landmarks References to palpable structures on the body surface Anatomical Regions To define Body areas Anatomical Directions Reference terms based on subject © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 1-8 Anatomical Terminology Superficial Anatomy Anatomical Landmarks References to palpable structures on the body surface Anatomical position: hands at sides, palms forward Supine: lying down, face up Prone: lying down, face down © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1-5a Anatomical Landmarks Frontal or forehead Nasal or nose Ocular, orbital or eye Cranial Otic or ear or skull Cephalic or head Buccal or cheek Facial or face Oral or mouth Cervical or neck Mental or chin Thoracic or thorax, chest Axillary or armpit Mammary or breast Brachial or arm Trunk Abdominal Antecubital (abdomen) or front of Umbilical elbow or navel Anterior view © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1-5a Anatomical Landmarks Antebrachial Pelvic Trunk or forearm (pelvis) Carpal or wrist Palmar or palm Manual or hand Pollex Digits Inguinal or thumb (phalanges) or groin or fingers (digital or phalangeal) Pubic Patellar (pubis) or kneecap Femoral Crural or thigh or leg Tarsal or ankle Digits (phalanges) or toes (digital or phalangeal) Pedal Hallux or or foot great toe © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Anterior view Figure 1-5b Anatomical Landmarks Cephalic or head Acromial or shoulder Cervical Dorsal or or neck back Olecranal Upper or back limb of elbow Posterior view © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1-5b Anatomical Landmarks Lumbar Upper limb or loin Gluteal or buttock Lower Popliteal or limb back of knee Sural or calf Calcaneal or heel of foot Plantar or sole of foot Posterior view © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 1-8 Anatomical Terminology Superficial Anatomy Anatomical Regions To define Body areas Two methods to map abdominal regions Abdominopelvic quadrants (four areas) Abdominopelvic regions (nine sub-areas) © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1-6a Abdominopelvic Quadrants and Regions Right Upper Left Upper Quadrant Quadrant (RUQ) (LUQ) Right Lower Left Lower Quadrant Quadrant (RLQ) (LLQ) Abdominopelvic quadrants. The four abdominopelvic quadrants are formed by two perpendicular lines that intersect at the navel. The terms for these quadrants, or their abbreviations, are most often used in clinical discussions. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1-6b Abdominopelvic Quadrants and Regions Right Left hypochondriac hypochondriac region Epigastric region region Right lumbar Umbilical Left lumbar region region region Right Hypogastric (pubic) Left inguinal inguinal region region region Abdominopelvic regions. The nine abdominopelvic regions provide more precise regional descriptions. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Organs of the Abdominopelvic Regions © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1.11b  Abdominopelvic Regions Umbilical Epigastric Hypogastric Right and left iliac or inguinal Right and left lumbar Right and left hypochondriac © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1.11a © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.  Ventral Body Cavity Membranes © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1.10a © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.  Body Cavities Thoracic cavity is subdivided into pleural cavities, the mediastinum, and the pericardial cavity Pleural cavities – each houses a lung Mediastinum – contains the pericardial cavity, and surrounds the remaining thoracic organs Pericardial cavity – encloses the heart © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Body Cavities The abdominopelvic cavity is separated from the superior thoracic cavity by the dome- shaped diaphragm It is composed of two subdivisions Abdominal cavity – contains the stomach, intestines, spleen, liver, and other organs Pelvic cavity – lies within the pelvis and contains the bladder, reproductive organs, and rectum © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1-6c Abdominopelvic Quadrants and Regions Liver Stomach Gallbladder Spleen Large intestine Small intestine Appendix Urinary bladder Anatomical relationships. The relationship between the abdominopelvic quadrants and regions and the locations of the internal organs are shown here. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1-6b Abdominopelvic Quadrants and Regions Right Left hypochondriac hypochondriac region Epigastric region region Right lumbar Umbilical Left lumbar region region region Right Hypogastric (pubic) Left inguinal inguinal region region region Abdominopelvic regions. The nine abdominopelvic regions provide more precise regional descriptions. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Table 1-2 Directional Terms © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 1-8 Anatomical Terminology Sectional Anatomy Planes and sections Plane: a three-dimensional axis Section: a slice parallel to a plane Used to visualize internal organization and structure Important in radiological techniques MRI PET CT © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1-8 Sectional Planes Frontal plane Sagittal plane Transverse plane © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Table 1-3 Terms That Indicate Sectional Planes © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 1) The quadrants of the abdominopelvic region include all of the following except: A) right upper quadrant (RUQ) B) right lower quadrant (RLQ) C) left upper quadrant (LUQ) Answer: E D) left lower quadrant (LLQ) E) pelvic quadrant 2) An anatomical term that means the same as ventral: 3) The heart is ________ to the lungs. A) posterior A) lateral B) inferior B) medial C) abdominal Answer: D C) posterior D) proximal Answer: B D) anterior E) superior E) distal 4) Which of the following terms refers to the foot? A) cervical B) brachial C) antebrachial Answer: E D) femoral E) pedal © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 1-9 Body Cavities Essential Functions of Body Cavities 1. Protect organs from accidental shocks 2. Permit changes in size and shape of internal organs Ventral body cavity (coelom) Divided by the diaphragm Thoracic cavity Abdominopelvic cavity © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.  Body Cavities Figure 1.9b © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1-9 Relationships among the Subdivisions of the Ventral Body Cavity Ventral Body Cavity Provides protection Allows organ movement Linings prevent friction Subdivides during development into Thoracic Cavity Abdominopelvic Cavity Surrounded by chest wall and diaphragm Peritoneal Cavity Extends throughout abdominal cavity Right Pleural Cavity Mediastinum Left Pleural Cavity and into superior portion of pelvic Surrounds right lung Contains the Surrounds left lung cavity trachea, esophagus, and major vessels Abdominal Cavity Pelvic Cavity Contains many Contains urinary Pericardial Cavity digestive glands bladder, and organs reproductive Surrounds heart organs, last portion of digestive tract © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 1-9 Body Cavities Serous Membranes Line body cavities and cover organs Consist of parietal layer and visceral layer Parietal layer — lines cavity Visceral layer — covers organ © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 1-9 Body Cavities The Thoracic Cavity Right and left pleural cavities Contain right and left lungs Mediastinum Upper portion filled with blood vessels, trachea, esophagus, and thymus Lower portion contains pericardial cavity The heart is located within the pericardial cavity © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1-10a The Ventral Body Cavity and Its Subdivisions POSTERIOR ANTERIOR Pleural cavity Thoracic cavity Pericardial cavity Diaphragm Peritoneal cavity Abdominopelvic Abdominal cavity cavity Pelvic cavity © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1-10b The Ventral Body Cavity and Its Subdivisions Visceral pericardium Heart Air space Pericardial cavity Balloon Parietal pericardium © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1-10c The Ventral Body Cavity and Its Subdivisions ANTERIOR Pericardial cavity Pleural cavity Right Left Parietal lung lung pleura Mediastinum Spinal cord POSTERIOR © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 1-9 Body Cavities The Abdominopelvic Cavity Peritoneal cavity: chamber within abdominopelvic cavity Parietal peritoneum: lines the internal body wall Visceral peritoneum: covers the organs © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 1-9 Body Cavities The Abdominopelvic Cavity Abdominal cavity — superior portion Diaphragm to top of pelvic bones Contains digestive organs Retroperitoneal space Area posterior to peritoneum and anterior to muscular body wall Contains pancreas, kidneys, ureters, and parts of the digestive tract © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 1-9 Body Cavities The Abdominopelvic Cavity Pelvic cavity — inferior portion Within pelvic bones Contains reproductive organs, rectum, and bladder © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Three Cavities Peritoneal – Abdomen Pericardial – Heart Pleural- Lungs © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.  1) The diaphragm muscle separates the ________ from the ________. A) pleural cavity; mediastinum B) thoracic cavity; abdominopelvic cavity C) pericardial cavity; pleural cavity D) abdominal cavity; pelvic cavity Answer: B E) pericardial sac; pericardial cavity 2) Visceral pericardium is located A) on the heart itself. B) lining the pleural cavity. C) lining the pericardial cavity. D) on the lung itself. Answer: A E) lining the peritoneal cavity © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.