a&p exam 1.pdf

Anatomy & Physiology: Exam 1 Physiology is the study of function. Anatomy is the study of body structures. Tissue- a group of similar cells and cell products that arise from the same region of the embryo and work together to perform a specific structural or physiological role in an organ. Organ-...

Anatomy & Physiology: Exam 1 Physiology is the study of function. Anatomy is the study of body structures. Tissue- a group of similar cells and cell products that arise from the same region of the embryo and work together to perform a specific structural or physiological role in an organ. Organ- a structure composed of two or more tissue types that work together to carry out a particular function. Molecule- particles composed of at least two atoms. Organism- a simple, complete individual. Levels of Organization Atoms, molecules, organelles, cells, tissues, organs, organ systems and the organism The Chemical (or Molecular) Level Atoms are the smallest chemical units Molecules are a group of Atoms working together The Cellular level Cells are a group of atoms, molecules, and organelles The Tissue Level A tissue is a group of similar cells working together The Organ Level An organ system is a group of organs working together Humans have 11 organ systems The Organism Level A human is an organism Cellular Level Organelles- small bodies Can not live outside the cell/cytoplasm Specialized function and direction Examples: Mitochondria- powerhouse cell Golgi apparatus- packaging Endoplasmic reticulum- transport channels Cells are the smallest structural unit Each type of cell is specialized for a specific function Fat cells (adipose) store lipids Cardiac cells contract Tissue Level Tissues are cells who share common form and function 4 Major Tissues Epithelial- covers surfaces, lines cavities (skin) Connective- supports,binds other tissues (bone,blood) Muscle- movement (skeletal,cardiac,smooth) Nervous- transmits signals (neurons,glial cells) Types of cells in Nervous Tissue Neurons- transmit nerve impulses Glial cells- support and protect neurons Organ Level Organs are different types of tissues together to perform a function Example: heart- composed of muscle and connective tissue to give its shape An Organ System consists of related organs with a common function There are 11 organ systems in the body Types of Glands Exocrine- secrete substances through ducts (sweat glands) Endocrine- Release hormones into bloodstream (thyroid gland) The Organ Systems Integumentary Major organs Skin Hair Sweat glands Nails Functions Protects against environmental hazards Helps regulate body temperature Provides sensory information Skeletal Major organs Bones Cartilages Associated ligaments Bone marrow Functions Provides support and protection for other tissues Stores calcium and other minerals Forms blood cells  Muscular Major organs Skeletal muscles and associated tendons Functions Provides movement Provides protection for other tissues Generates heat that maintains body temperature Nervous Major organs Brain Spinal cord Peripheral nerves Sense organs Functions Directs immediate responses to stimuli Coordinates activities of other organ systems Provides and interprets sensory information about external conditions Endocrine Major organs Pituitary gland Thyroid gland Pancreas Adrenal glands Gonads Functions Long-term changes in the activities of other systems Adjusts metabolic activity Controls changes during development Cardiovascular Major Organs Heart Blood Blood vessels Functions  Distributes blood cells, water, and dissolved materials including nutrients, waste products, oxygen, and carbon dioxide Distributes heat and assists in control of body temperature Lymphatic Major organs Spleen Thymus Lymphatic vessels Lymph nodes Tonsils Functions Defends against infection and disease Returns tissue fluids to bloodstream Respiratory Major Organs Nasal cavities Larynx Trachea Bronci Lungs Alveoli Functions Delivers air to alveoli Provides oxygen to bloodstream Removes carbon dioxide from bloodstream Produces sounds for communication Digestive Major organs Teeth - Tongue - Pharynx Esophagus - Stomach Small intestine - Large intestine Liver - Gallbladder Pancreas Functions Processes and digests food Absorbs and conserves water Absorbs nutrients  Stores energy reserves Urinary Major Organs Kidneys Ureters Urinary bladder Urethra Functions Excretes water products from the blood Controls water balance by regulating volume of urine produced Stores urine prior to voluntary elimination Regulates blood ion concentrations and pH Male Reproductive Major Organs Testes Epididymides Ductus deferentia Seminal Vesicles Prostate gland Penis Scrotum Functions Produces male sex cells (sperm), seminal fluids, hormones Sexual intercourse Female reproductive Major organs Ovaries Uterine tubes Uterus Vagina Labia Clitoris Mammary glands Functions Produces female sex cells (oocytes) and hormones  Supports developing embryo from conception to delivery Provides milk to nourish newborn infant Sexual intercourse An organism consists of a collection of organ systems. Homeostasis is the ability to maintain internal stability. Metabolism- Chemical processes that occur in the body Catabolic- energy-releasing decomposition aka breaking down Anabolic- energy-storing aka building up Responsiveness is the body's ability to detect and respond to changes which might represent an opportunity or threat. Movement is any motion, including movement of tiny subcellular structures, or movement inside cells or organs. Growth involves an increase in body size due to an increase in existing cells, number of cells or both. (In bone growth, materials between cells increase) Differentiation the development of a cell from an unspecialized to specialized state. Cells have specialized structures and functions that differ from precursor cells. Reproduction is the formation of new cells (growth, repair or replacement) or the production of a new individual. Feedback system Body is monitored and unmonitored Each monitored variable is termed a controlled condition Three basic components of a feedback system Receptor Control center Effector A receptor is a body structure that monitors changes in a controlled condition (such as body temperature) The control center sets the range of values to be maintained- usually this is done by the brain The effector receives output from the control center and produces a response or effect that changes the controlled condition Negative feedback systems: Reverses a change in a controlled condition Regulation of blood pressure Positive feedback systems: Strengthens or reinforces a change in one of the body's controlled conditions Normal child birth Anatomical terminology Superficial anatomy Locating structures on or near the body surface Anatomical position: hands at sides, palms forward Supine: lying down, face up Prone: lying down, face down Directional Terms Superior-towards the head (superior = skull) Inferior- towards the feet (inferior=floor) Anterior- front (toward the front of the body) A before P in the alphabet Posterior- back (towards the back of the body) Ventral-toward the belly Dorsal-toward the back (think dorsal fin) Directional terms medial=midline=middle Medial-toward the midline Lateral-toward the side of the body Proximal-toward the nearest point Distal-toward the farthest point Superficial- toward the surface Deep-away from the surface Ipsilateral= on the same side Ipsi=same Contralateral= on the opposite sides of the body Descriptive terms Visceral-pertaining to a covering over an organ Parietal-pertaining to a covering against a cavity wall Body Planes imaginary line that cuts the body into sections Section= SCT S=Sagittal (midline) C=Coronal plane (vertical) T= Transverse plane (horizontal) Transverse = Top view Body Cavities Dorsal Cavity: Brain (cranial cavity), spinal cord (spinal cavity). Ventral Cavity: Heart (thoracic cavity), lungs, digestive organs (abdominal cavity). The Chemical Level of Organization 26 elements in the human body 11 major elements Top 4 which make up 96% are Carbon, Hydrogen, Nitrogen and Oxygen Structure of an atom Nucleus (contains protons and neutrons) Atomic number = the number of protons Mass number= Total of protons and neutrons The total number of electrons in an atom equals the number of protons in its nucleus An enzyme is proteins made up of amino acids Proton-Positively charged, in nucleus. Neutron- No charge, in nucleus. Electron-Negatively charged, orbits nucleus. Isotopes- Atoms of the same element but with a different mass number Ionic bonds are chemical bonds formed by the transfer of electrons from one atom to another. Covalent bonds are chemical bonds formed by sharing electrons. (Can be polar or nonpolar) Polar covalent bonds are formed by the unequal sharing of electrons between atoms. Nonpolar covalent bond atoms share the electrons equally; nonpolar covalent bonds are the most common types. Valence- An electron in an atom's outer shell that determines its chemical properties. Octet rule- Atoms with fewer than eight electrons in their outer shell try to lose, gain, or share electrons with other atoms to become stable. Electrolyte- large group of inorganic compounds including acids, bases and salts Proteins- amino acids, enzymes Carbohydrates- ribose, monosaccharides Lipids- steroids, glycerol, phospholipids Bases pH>7 Proton acceptors example: baking soda, ammonia Acids pH < 7 proton donor example: citric acid Acidic levels depends on the number of hydrogen ions a particular acid will release Exergonic- reaction releases energy (usually in the form of heat) during catabolism of food OUT exit. (coffee/energy drinks) Endergonic (endo means within) reaction requires that energy be added. ATP is the source of energy for use and storage at the cellular level. Catalysts speed up a reaction by lowering activation energy needed for a reaction to occur. Adenosine Triphosphate- Full battery Adenosine Diphosphate- Low battery Glucose is what your body runs on Glucose is made out of plants Adhesion- Two separate things connecting like tape; two different substances being held together. (example: taping a ruler to the whiteboard) Cohesion- Like particles stick together, creating high surface tension. (example: water likes to grab onto other water molecules) 18. Types of Reactions -Synthesis-Combining substances (A + B → AB). Decomposition-Breaking down substances (AB → A + B). Exchange- Parts of molecules switch (AB + CD → AC + BD). Biomolecules Proteins- Amino acids, enzymes. (enzymes, structure, transport, signaling) Carbohydrates- Ribose, monosaccharides (quick energy source, structural support) Lipids- Steroids, glycerol, phospholipids (energy storage, insulation, cell membranes) Nucleic Acids- Genetic information (DNA,RNA) 7 major protein functions 1. Support (structural proteins) 2. Movement (contractile proteins) 3. Transport (transport carrier proteins) 4. Buffering (regulation of pH) 5. Metabolic regulation (enzymes) 6. Coordination and control (hormones) 7. Defense (antibodies) 1.Carbohydrates Composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen (usually in a ratio of 1:2:1). Often represented as ring structures in diagrams, especially in aqueous solutions. They can be simple (monosaccharides like glucose and fructose) or complex (polysaccharides like starch and cellulose). ○ Monosaccharides: Single sugar molecules, typically ring-shaped. ○ Disaccharides: Two monosaccharides linked together (e.g., sucrose). ○ Polysaccharides: Long chains of monosaccharides (e.g., glycogen, cellulose). 2. Lipids Primarily made up of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, with a much higher ratio of hydrogen to oxygen than carbohydrates. ○ Fatty Acids: Long hydrocarbon chains, can be saturated (no double bonds) or unsaturated (one or more double bonds). ○ Triglycerides: Formed from glycerol and three fatty acids. ○ Phospholipids: Composed of two fatty acids, a glycerol, and a phosphate group; have a hydrophilic head and hydrophobic tails. ○ Steroids: Characterized by a four-ring structure (e.g., cholesterol). Often depicted as long chains (fatty acids) or ring structures (steroids). 3. Proteins Composed of amino acids, which contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen. Can be represented as chains of amino acids, folded structures, or complex 4. Nucleic Acids Are large organic molecules, found in the nucleus, which store and process information at the molecular level  Primary- sequence of amino acids Secondary- Alpha helix or beta-pleated sheet formation Tertiary- 3D folding of a single polypepti DNA is often depicted as a twisted ladder, while RNA is shown as a single strand. Prokaryotic cells are simple cells that have no nucleus Eukaryotic cells are complex with a nucleus and subcellular structures (organelles) Cell is surrounded by plasma membrane Cytoplasm is within the cell Nucleus contains the genetic library of the cell Plasma membrane and organelle membranes are selectively permeable–allowing some things through, but preventing others from passing Membranes Serous- thin membranes lining closed body cavities, producing serous fluid. Pleural- membranes surrounding the lungs Hypotonic solution–Gains water, swell and possibly burst (lyse) Hypertonic solution–Loses water and shrivel (crenate) Isotonic solution–causes no change in the cell volume Endocytosis brings material into the cell Exocytosis releases material from cell Simple Diffusion- Movement of small, nonpolar molecules through the membrane. Facilitated Diffusion-Movement of larger or polar molecules through protein channels. Osmosis-Diffusion of water across a semipermeable membrane. Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) network of interconnected membranous channels called cisterns. Rough ER- parallel, flattened sacs covered with ribosomes (bumpy, like candy dots on paper) makes proteins Smooth ER- tubular ER lacking ribosomes (roads of new york city) Nucleus-Contains genetic material. Mitochondria- Energy production (ATP). Ribosomes-Protein synthesis. Endoplasmic Reticulum-Protein and lipid synthesis. Golgi Apparatus-Modifies and packages proteins. Lysosomes-Digestion of waste. Types of body fluids Intracellular fluid- fluid within the cells Extracellular fluid-fluid outside cells