Biology Chapter on Metabolism and Body Systems

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Questions and Answers

Which statement best describes metabolism?

Metabolism is the ability to maintain internal stability.

Anabolic processes break down molecules for energy.

Metabolism refers to chemical processes occurring in the body. (correct)

Catabolic processes build up molecules and store energy.

What role does a control center play in a feedback system?

It sets the range of values that must be maintained. (correct)

It provides the output needed to change the controlled condition.

It monitors changes in the controlled condition.

It executes responses to adjust the body's variables.

In which of the following scenarios would a negative feedback system be utilized?

In the formation of new cells.

To regulate the body's temperature. (correct)

During normal child birth.

During the enlargement of muscles.

Which directional term indicates movement towards the midline of the body?

Medial Signup and view all the answers

What is described as the body's ability to detect and respond to changes in the environment?

Responsiveness Signup and view all the answers

What does the anatomical position refer to?

Standing upright with hands at sides and palms forward. Signup and view all the answers

Which type of body cavity contains the brain?

Dorsal cavity Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for the process by which cells undergo specialization?

Differentiation Signup and view all the answers

Which four elements make up 96% of the human body?

Carbon, Hydrogen, Nitrogen, Oxygen Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary role of enzymes in biochemical reactions?

To act as catalysts by speeding up reactions Signup and view all the answers

How do polar covalent bonds differ from nonpolar covalent bonds?

Polar covalent bonds involve unequal sharing of electrons Signup and view all the answers

What is the octet rule related to atomic structure?

Atoms with fewer than eight electrons in their outer shell aim to become stable Signup and view all the answers

What distinguishes acids from bases in terms of pH and ion release?

Acids are proton donors with pH < 7, while bases are proton acceptors with pH > 7 Signup and view all the answers

Which statement accurately describes exergonic reactions?

They release energy, often in the form of heat Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) in the body?

To act as a source of energy for use and storage at the cellular level Signup and view all the answers

What process is characterized by the high surface tension created from water molecules sticking together?

Cohesion Signup and view all the answers

What best defines physiology?

The study of function Signup and view all the answers

What type of reaction involves combining two substances to form a single product?

Synthesis Signup and view all the answers

Which level of organization involves molecules working together?

Chemical Level Signup and view all the answers

Which biomolecule is primarily responsible for storing genetic information?

Nucleic Acids Signup and view all the answers

What is an organ composed of?

Two or more tissue types Signup and view all the answers

Which function is associated with the integumentary system?

Provides sensory information Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT one of the seven major functions of proteins?

Energy storage Signup and view all the answers

What is the basic building block of proteins?

Amino acids Signup and view all the answers

What type of tissue supports and binds other tissues?

Connective Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following carbohydrate types consists of two monosaccharides linked together?

Disaccharide Signup and view all the answers

Which organ system is primarily responsible for the distribution of blood cells and nutrients?

Cardiovascular Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of neurons in nervous tissue?

Transmit nerve impulses Signup and view all the answers

Which lipid type is characterized by a four-ring structure?

Steroids Signup and view all the answers

What do exocrine glands do?

Secrete substances through ducts Signup and view all the answers

Which level of protein structure refers to the 3D folding of a single polypeptide chain?

Tertiary Signup and view all the answers

What is the typical ratio of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in carbohydrates?

1:2:1 Signup and view all the answers

Which structure is NOT part of the respiratory system?

Esophagus Signup and view all the answers

Which organs form part of the muscular system?

Skeletal muscles and associated tendons Signup and view all the answers

Which organ system regulates water balance in the body?

Urinary Signup and view all the answers

What is the main function of adipose tissue?

Store lipids Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary role of glial cells in nervous tissue?

Support and protect neurons Signup and view all the answers

Which organ system is primarily involved in producing and nourishing the developing embryo?

Female Reproductive Signup and view all the answers

What happens to a cell placed in a hypertonic solution?

The cell loses water and shrivels. Signup and view all the answers

Which structure is primarily responsible for protein synthesis within the cell?

Ribosomes Signup and view all the answers

Which type of diffusion specifically involves the movement of water across a semipermeable membrane?

Osmosis Signup and view all the answers

What function does the Golgi Apparatus serve in the cell?

Protein modification and packaging Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes the plasma membrane's nature?

It is selectively permeable, allowing some substances to cross. Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Anatomy & Physiology

Physiology is the study of bodily functions.
Anatomy is the study of body structures.
Tissue is a group of similar cells and cell products working together for a specific function.
Organ is composed of two or more tissues working together to perform a specific function.
Molecule is a group of at least two atoms.
Organism is a complete individual.

Levels of Organization

Atoms are the smallest chemical units.
Molecules are groups of atoms working together.
Cells are groups of atoms, molecules, and organelles.
Tissues are groups of similar cells working together.
Organs are groups of different tissues working together for a specific function.
Organ systems are groups of related organs working together with a common function.
Organism is a complete individual composed of multiple organ systems.

Cellular Level

Organelles are small, specialized structures within a cell's cytoplasm.
Mitochondria are the "powerhouse" of the cell, responsible for energy production.
Golgi apparatus packages and modifies proteins.
Endoplasmic reticulum is a network of transport channels in the cell.
Cells are the smallest structural unit of an organism.
Each cell type has specialized functions:
- Fat cells (adipose) store lipids.
- Cardiac cells contract to enable the heart's pumping action.

Tissue Level

Tissues are composed of cells with similar structure and function.
There are four major tissue types:
- Epithelial tissue covers body surfaces and lines cavities (e.g., skin).
- Connective tissue supports and binds other tissues (e.g., bone, blood).
- Muscle tissue allows for movement (e.g., skeletal, cardiac, smooth).
- Nervous tissue transmits signals (e.g., neurons, glial cells).

Nervous Tissue

Neurons transmit nerve impulses.
Glial cells support and protect neurons.

Organ Level

Organs are composed of different tissue types working together to perform a specific function.
Example: The heart, composed of muscle and connective tissue, enables blood circulation.

Organ Systems

An organ system consists of related organs with a common function.
There are 11 organ systems in the human body.

Types of Glands

Exocrine glands secrete substances through ducts (e.g., sweat glands).
Endocrine glands release hormones into the bloodstream (e.g., thyroid gland).

Organ Systems in Detail

Integumentary System
- Major organs: Skin, hair, sweat glands, nails.
- Functions: Protection from environmental hazards, temperature regulation, sensory information.
Skeletal System
- Major organs: Bones, cartilages, ligaments, bone marrow.
- Functions: Support, protection, mineral storage, blood cell formation.
Muscular System
- Major organs: Skeletal muscles and tendons.
- Functions: Movement, protection, heat generation.
Nervous System
- Major organs: Brain, spinal cord, peripheral nerves, sense organs.
- Functions: Directs immediate responses to stimuli, coordinates organ system activities, sensory information processing.
Endocrine System
- Major organs: Pituitary, thyroid, pancreas, adrenal glands, gonads.
- Functions: Long-term regulation of organ system activity, metabolic control, developmental changes.
Cardiovascular System
- Major organs: Heart, blood, blood vessels.
- Functions: Distribution of blood cells, nutrients, waste products, oxygen, carbon dioxide, heat regulation.
Lymphatic System
- Major organs: Spleen, thymus, lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes, tonsils.
- Functions: Immune defense, return of tissue fluid to bloodstream.
Respiratory System
- Major organs: Nasal cavities, larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs, alveoli.
- Functions: Air delivery to alveoli, oxygen uptake, carbon dioxide removal, sound production.
Digestive System
- Major organs: Teeth, tongue, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, liver, gallbladder, pancreas.
- Functions: Food processing and digestion, water absorption, nutrient absorption, energy storage.
Urinary System
- Major organs: Kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, urethra.
- Functions: Waste excretion, water balance, blood ion and pH regulation.
Male Reproductive System
- Major organs: Testes, epididymides, ductus deferentia, seminal vesicles, prostate gland, penis, scrotum.
- Functions: Production of sperm and male hormones, sexual intercourse.
Female Reproductive System
- Major organs: Ovaries, uterine tubes, uterus, vagina, labia, clitoris, mammary glands.
- Functions: Production of oocytes and female hormones, support of developing embryo, milk production, sexual intercourse.

Organismal Level

An organism is a complete individual composed of multiple organ systems.

Homeostasis

Homeostasis is the ability of the body to maintain stable internal conditions despite external changes.

Metabolism

Metabolism is the sum of all chemical processes in the body.
- Catabolism is the energy-releasing breakdown of substances (e.g., digestion).
- Anabolism is the energy-requiring synthesis of complex molecules (e.g., growth).

Responsiveness

Responsiveness is the ability to detect and respond to changes in the environment.

Movement

Movement encompasses a range of motions from tiny subcellular structures to movement within cells and organs.

Growth

Growth is an increase in body size due to an increase in existing cells, number of cells, or both.

Differentiation

Differentiation is the development of specialized cells from unspecialized precursor cells.

Reproduction

Reproduction refers to the formation of new cells for growth, repair, or replacement, and can also encompass the production of a new individual.

Feedback Systems

Feedback systems monitor and regulate controlled conditions in the body.

Components of a Feedback System

Receptor: Detects changes in a controlled condition.
Control center: Sets the range for the controlled condition and receives input from the receptor.
Effector: Receives output from the control center and produces a response to change the controlled condition.

Negative Feedback Systems

Negative feedback systems reverse a change in a controlled condition.
Example: Regulating blood pressure.

Positive Feedback Systems

Positive feedback systems strengthen or reinforce a change in a controlled condition.
Example: Normal childbirth.

Anatomical Terminology

Surface anatomy refers to the location of structures near the body surface.

Anatomical Position

Anatomical position: Standing upright, arms at sides, palms facing forward.
Supine: Lying on back, face up.
Prone: Lying on stomach, face down.

Directional Terms

Superior: Towards the head (e.g., the skull is superior to the chest).
Inferior: Towards the feet (e.g., the feet are inferior to the head).
Anterior (ventral): Front of the body.
Posterior (dorsal): Back of the body.
Medial: Towards the midline.
Lateral: Away from the midline.
Proximal: Nearest to the point of reference.
Distal: Farthest from the point of reference.
Superficial: Towards the surface.
Deep: Away from the surface.
Ipsilateral: Same side of the body.
Contralateral: Opposite side of the body.

Descriptive Terms

Visceral: Pertaining to a covering of an organ.
Parietal: Pertaining to a covering against a cavity wall.

Body Planes

Sagittal Plane: Divides the body into left and right sections.
Coronal (frontal) Plane: Divides the body into anterior and posterior sections.
Transverse (horizontal) Plane: Divides the body into superior and inferior sections.

Body Cavities

Dorsal Cavity:
- Cranial Cavity: Contains the brain.
- Spinal Cavity: Contains the spinal cord.
Ventral Cavity:
- Thoracic Cavity: Contains heart and lungs.
- Abdominal Cavity: Contains digestive organs.

The Chemical Level of Organization

There are 26 elements in the human body, with 11 being major elements.
The top four major elements, comprising 96% of the body, are Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, and Nitrogen.

Structure of an Atom

Nucleus: Contains protons and neutrons.
- Protons: Positively charged.
- Neutrons: No charge.
Atomic Number: Number of protons in the nucleus.
Mass Number: Total number of protons and neutrons.
Electrons: Negatively charged particles that orbit the nucleus. The number of electrons in an atom equals the number of protons.

Enzymes

Enzymes are proteins that act as catalysts, speeding up chemical reactions.

Isotopes

Isotopes are atoms of the same element but with different mass numbers due to varying numbers of neutrons.

Chemical Bonds

Ionic bonds form when electrons are transferred between atoms, creating charged ions.
Covalent bonds form when electrons are shared between atoms.
- Polar covalent bonds: Electrons are shared unequally.
- Nonpolar covalent bonds: Electrons are shared equally.

Valence

Valence refers to the number of electrons in an atom's outer shell, which determines its chemical properties.

Octet Rule

The Octet Rule states that atoms tend to gain, lose, or share electrons to achieve a stable outer shell containing eight electrons.

Electrolytes

Electrolytes are inorganic compounds, including acids, bases, and salts, that conduct electricity when dissolved in water.

Organic Compounds

Proteins: Composed of amino acids and perform various functions (e.g., enzymes, structural support, transport, signaling).
Carbohydrates: Composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen (usually in a 1:2:1 ratio), providing quick energy and structural support.
- Monosaccharides: Simple sugars.
- Disaccharides: Two monosaccharides linked together.
- Polysaccharides: Long chains of monosaccharides.
Lipids: Composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, primarily used for energy storage, insulation, and cell membranes.
- Fatty Acids: Long hydrocarbon chains.
- Triglycerides: Composed of glycerol and three fatty acids.
- Phospholipids: Contain two fatty acids, glycerol, and a phosphate group, forming cell membranes.
- Steroids: Characterized by a four-ring structure.
Nucleic Acids: Large molecules that store and process genetic information.
- DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)
- RNA (ribonucleic acid)

Protein Structure

Primary Structure: The sequence of amino acids in a protein chain.
Secondary Structure: Folding of the protein chain into alpha helices or beta pleated sheets.
Tertiary Structure: The three-dimensional shape of a single polypeptide chain.

Cells

Prokaryotic Cells: Simple cells without a nucleus.
Eukaryotic Cells: Complex cells with a nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles.

Cell Structures

Plasma Membrane: The outer boundary of the cell, controlling the passage of substances.
Cytoplasm: The substance within the cell, including organelles.
Nucleus: Contains DNA, the genetic material of the cell.

Membrane Permeability

Selectively permeable: Allows some substances to pass through while blocking others.

Membranes

Serous Membranes: Thin membranes lining closed body cavities, producing serous fluid.
Pleural Membranes: Serous membranes surrounding the lungs.

Solutions

Hypotonic Solution: Has a lower solute concentration than the cell, causing the cell to gain water and swell.
Hypertonic Solution: Has a higher solute concentration than the cell, causing the cell to lose water and shrink.
Isotonic Solution: Has the same solute concentration as the cell, causing no change in cell volume.

Transport Mechanisms

Endocytosis: Brings material into the cell.
Exocytosis: Releases material from the cell.

Membrane Transport

Simple Diffusion: Movement of small, nonpolar molecules directly through the membrane.
Facilitated Diffusion: Movement of larger or polar molecules through protein channels.
Osmosis: Diffusion of water across a semipermeable membrane.

Organelles

Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER): A network of interconnected membranous channels called cisternae.
- Rough ER: Covered with ribosomes, synthesizes proteins.
- Smooth ER: Lacking ribosomes, synthesizes lipids.
Nucleus: Contains genetic material.
Mitochondria: Energy production (ATP).
Ribosomes: Protein synthesis.
Golgi Apparatus: Modifies and packages proteins.
Lysosomes: Digestion of waste products.

Body Fluids

Intracellular Fluid (ICF): Fluid within cells.
Extracellular Fluid (ECF): Fluid outside cells.

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Test your knowledge on key concepts from biology relating to metabolism and body systems. This quiz covers topics such as feedback systems, directional terms, and cellular specialization. Perfect for students looking to review essential biological principles.