BIOS255 Exam 1 Study Guide PDF

BIOS255 EXAM1 STUDY GUIDE Introduction - General functions of cardiovascular System and composition of Blood Different parts to centrifuged blood and what is in each part: o Plasma – Upper layer- 55% (water, dissolved gasses, nutrients, waste products, proteins)-...

BIOS255 EXAM1 STUDY GUIDE Introduction - General functions of cardiovascular System and composition of Blood Different parts to centrifuged blood and what is in each part: o Plasma – Upper layer- 55% (water, dissolved gasses, nutrients, waste products, proteins)- o Buffy Coat – middle layer- less than 1% (WBCs and Platelets) o Hematocrit (Erythrocyte) – lowermost layer- 45% (RBC) Three formed elements found in blood o RBCs (Erythrocytes): 4.2 – 6.2 million/µL o WBCs (Leukocytes): 5,000 – 10,000/µL o Platelets: 130,000 – 360,000/µL Blood Plasma plasma makes up over half of blood volume. It is a complex mixture of water, nutrients, hormones, electrolytes (like Na+, K+), gases, nitrogenous wastes (urea), and proteins. Plasma proteins are mainly produced by liver and exert the greatest effect on the physical characteristics of whole blood. The major plasma proteins in blood include albumin, globulins, and fibrinogen. Albumin constitutes 60% influences the viscosity and osmolarity of blood Globulins make up 36% of plasma proteins, are antibodies secreted to combat pathogens in specialized immune responses. Fibrinogen constitutes about 4% of all plasma proteins. It is a soluble precursor of another protein called fibrin. blood plasma - fibrinogen = blood serum. Introduction to Erythrocytes, their role, homeostasis, disorders, blood groups and clinical significance Red Blood Cells (RBCs) – lack a nucleus, biconcave disc shape, bags of hemoglobin, carry oxygen and some carbon dioxide Hct- hematocrit- % of whole blood occupied by RBC. o Formed in the red bone marrow from the hematopoietic stem cell, myeloid stem cell, erythroblast, reticulocyte, mature RBC ▪ To make an RBC you need: EPO or erythropoietin (released from kidney due to low oxygen in the blood – hypoxemia); amino acids; iron (ferrin); vitamin B12 ▪ The steps to hemoglobin recycling: functions of bilirubin, biliverdin, stercobilin, urobilinogen, and transferrin ▪ Hemoglobin is made up of iron (4 heme groups)- binds to oxygen and globin (protein) o Disorders: Polycythemia, Anemia Some common forms of anemia are: Pernicious –. Results from a lack of intrinsic factor from the stomach that helps with the absorption of Vitamin B12.  BIOS255 EXAM1 STUDY GUIDE Introduction - General functions of cardiovascular System and composition of Blood Different parts to centrifuged blood and what is in each part: o Plasma – Upper layer- 55% (water, dissolved gasses, nutrients, waste products, proteins)- o Buffy Coat – middle layer- less than 1% (WBCs and Platelets) o Hematocrit (Erythrocyte) – lowermost layer- 45% (RBC) Three formed elements found in blood o RBCs (Erythrocytes): 4.2 – 6.2 million/µL o WBCs (Leukocytes): 5,000 – 10,000/µL o Platelets: 130,000 – 360,000/µL Blood Plasma plasma makes up over half of blood volume. It is a complex mixture of water, nutrients, hormones, electrolytes (like Na+, K+), gases, nitrogenous wastes (urea), and proteins. Plasma proteins are mainly produced by liver and exert the greatest effect on the physical characteristics of whole blood. The major plasma proteins in blood include albumin, globulins, and fibrinogen. Albumin constitutes 60% influences the viscosity and osmolarity of blood Globulins make up 36% of plasma proteins, are antibodies secreted to combat pathogens in specialized immune responses. Fibrinogen constitutes about 4% of all plasma proteins. It is a soluble precursor of another protein called fibrin. blood plasma - fibrinogen = blood serum. Introduction to Erythrocytes, their role, homeostasis, disorders, blood groups and clinical significance Red Blood Cells (RBCs) – lack a nucleus, biconcave disc shape, bags of hemoglobin, carry oxygen and some carbon dioxide Hct- hematocrit- % of whole blood occupied by RBC. o Formed in the red bone marrow from the hematopoietic stem cell, myeloid stem cell, erythroblast, reticulocyte, mature RBC ▪ To make an RBC you need: EPO or erythropoietin (released from kidney due to low oxygen in the blood – hypoxemia); amino acids; iron (ferrin); vitamin B12 ▪ The steps to hemoglobin recycling: functions of bilirubin, biliverdin, stercobilin, urobilinogen, and transferrin ▪ Hemoglobin is made up of iron (4 heme groups)- binds to oxygen and globin (protein) o Disorders: Polycythemia, Anemia Some common forms of anemia are: Pernicious –. Results from a lack of intrinsic factor from the stomach that helps with the absorption of Vitamin B12.  Iron deficiency – impaired hemoglobin production due to lack of iron. Thalassemia – impaired synthesis of globin proteins. Aplastic – reduced erythrocyte mitosis in red bone marrow. Sickle-cell – hereditary hemoglobin defect that 'sickles' in low oxygen, causing cells to lodge in small vessels and reduce blood flow. Hemorrhagic – due to loss of blood. Hemolytic – anything that causes the destruction of erythrocytes (e.g., blood transfusion incompatibility, parasitic infections, drug reactions). o ABO Blood Typing: Antigens versus Antibodies, blood type compatibilities Blood type AB does not have any antibodies and thus can safely receive blood from A, B, AB, and O blood types. This blood type is called the universal recipient. Blood type O does not have any antigens on its RBCs and can donate blood to all other types. This blood type is called the universal donor Introduction to Leukocytes Never Neutrophils 60% Microphages (phagocytic), bacterial infections Let Lymphocytes 30% T and B-cells, mount immune response, cancer cells, viruses My Monocytes 8% Macrophages, phagocytize pathogens, dead neutrophils, and debris of dead cells Engine Eosinophils 3% Parasitic worms, phagocytize antigen-antibody complexes, allergies, and inflammatory chemicals Blow Basophils >1% Allergic reactions, secrete histamine, secrete heparin Two categories of leukocytes o Granulocyte: -phils; Neutrophils, Basophils, Eosinophils o Agranulocytes: -cytes; Monocytes, Lymphocytes Lymphoid stem cells: give rise to B-cell lymphocytes (PRODUCE ANTIBODIES), T-cell lymphocytes, and Natural Killer cells Myeloid stem cells: give rise to RBCs, platelet, Monocytes, Neutrophils, Eosinophils, and Basophils Introduction to Thrombocytes Three steps to hemostasis o Vascular spasm o Platelet plug formation o Coagulation ▪ Extrinsic pathway ▪ Intrinsic pathway ▪ Common pathway – Prothrombin (plasma protein) , thrombin (enzyme converts Fibrinogen into Fibrin), and fibrin (insoluble sticky protein that adheres to the walls of vessels) There are two pathways to coagulation: intrinsic and extrinsic mechanisms. The intrinsic mechanism is the reaction pathway that uses clotting factors that are within the blood itself. The extrinsic mechanism is initiated by clotting factors that are released by the damaged blood vessel or nearby tissues. Both pathways will eventually arrive to activate Factor X. In the presence of Ca2+, factor X combines with factor III and produces the enzyme prothrombin activator. This converts a plasma protein called prothrombin to thrombin. Thrombin is an enzyme that will convert fibrinogen to fibrin. Extrinsic or Intrinsic Pathway -→ Factor X -→Prothrombin activator →Thrombin →Fibrinogen into Fibrin  o Clot retraction Clots are disposed of once tissue repair is completed with the help of protein plasmin. This dissolution is known as fibrinolysis. Anticoagulants: Heparin is a chemical secreted by basophils and mast cells, which blocks thrombin from working on fibrinogen. Understand Disorders: Hemophilia, Thrombosis, Embolus, Hematoma Gross and Microscopic anatomy of the heart Location and position of the heart Pericardium: parietal pericardium and visceral pericardium (serous membrane that lines the heart) Layers to the Heart Wall: Epicardium (same is visceral pericardium), Myocardium (contains cardiac muscle), and Endocardium R and L Atrium, R and L Ventricle and the great vessels that attach to each. Left ventricle the thickest since it sends blood against gravity to the brain. Heart valves: o AV valves- between atrium and ventricles- prevents backflow from ventricles into atrium ▪ Tricuspid – right ▪ Bicuspid/Mitral – left o Semilunar valves ▪ Pulmonic – right ventricle and pulmonary trunk ▪ Aortic – left ventricle and aorta Surface anatomy and internal structures Myocardial blood supply Coronary circulation- ARTERIAL SUPPLY OF OXYGENATED BLOOD Coronary Sinus- VENOUS DRAINAGE Microscopic anatomy of the heart muscle – short, fat, branched, uninucleated, striated, involuntary, intercalated disc Cardiac Pacemaker Cells The specific region of the heart responsible for setting the heart’s rhythm is known as the sinoatrial node (SA). This region consists of specialized cardiomyocytes known as pacemaker cells with membrane potential starting at -60mV. This depolarization results from a slow influx of Na+. Physiology of cardiac muscle contraction Autorhythmic Depolarize through leakage of potassium Reaching threshold opens voltage-gated sodium channels, slow voltage calcium channels, and voltage-gated potassium channels.  Blood flow through heart Superior vena cava, Inferior vena cava, and Coronary sinus; Right atrium; Tricuspid valve; Right ventricle; Pulmonary semilunar valve; Pulmonary trunk; Right and Left Pulmonary Arteries; Lungs; Right and Left Pulmonary Veins; Left Atrium; Bicuspid/Mitral valve; Left ventricle; Aortic valve; Aorta Electrical conduction system of the heart and electrocardiogram SA node, AV node (bundle), Bundle branches, Purkinje fibers Electrocardiogram (ECG/EKG) P wave – atrial depolarization PQ interval – ventricular filling QRS Complex – Ventricular depolarization ST segment – ventricular emptying T wave – ventricular repolarization Cardiac cycle  Systolic versus Diastolic o Atrial Systole/Ventricular Diastole – AV valves OPEN, Semilunar valves CLOSED o Atrial Diastole/Ventricular Systole – AV valves CLOSED, Semilunar valves OPEN o Matching electrical conduction to heart systole vs diastole o Pressure and volume relation. As volume goes up, pressure goes down. As volume goes down, pressure goes up. Cardiac cycle lasts from one p wave to the beginning of the next p wave. Heart Sounds This process of listening to sounds made by the body is called auscultation. The typical “lub-dub” sound is a result of the closing of heart valves. The first sound (S1 or “lub”) is caused by the closure of the atrioventricular valves during ventricular contraction (systole). The second sound (S2 or “dub”) is produced by closure of the aortic and pulmonary semilunar valves during ventricular relaxation (diastole). Regulation of Cardiac Output, Stroke Volume and Heart rate CO = SV x HR o Since cardiac output is affected by stroke volume (amount of blood leaving the left ventricle per beat) and the heart rate (beats per minute) anything that effects volume of blood or how fast or slow the heart beats will affect CO SV = EDV – ESV Factors Affecting Cardiac Output – HR, stroke volume ( Autonomic Innervation of the Heart There are two cardiac centers in the medulla oblongata of the brainstem. The cardioacceleratory center sends sympathetic signals by way of the cardiac nerves. Stimulation by these nerves increases heart rate and contractility of the heart chambers.  Parasympathetic signals from the cardioinhibitory center travel by way of the vagus nerves. This results in slowing the rate of spontaneous depolarizations and leads to decreased heart rate.