ANTHRO-100 Notes PDF

AMDG UP NAMING MAHAL HONOR AND EXCELLENCE ANTHRO 100 What is anthropology? Introduced by an American: Henry Otley Byer ○ “Founder of anthropology” and “the father of Philippine anthropology” ○ Chemist from Harvard Four Field...

AMDG UP NAMING MAHAL HONOR AND EXCELLENCE ANTHRO 100 What is anthropology? Introduced by an American: Henry Otley Byer ○ “Founder of anthropology” and “the father of Philippine anthropology” ○ Chemist from Harvard Four Fields of American Anthropology 1. Cultural Anthropology (Social Anthropology in United Kingdom or England) a. Nanggaling to sa interest with anthropological “other” i. people who are not like us, hindi mo kagrupo. b. Studies social organization based on kinship i. Traditional or primitive society: indigenous people ii. But a lot of Anthropologist did contemporary society because you cannot go to indigenous communities without being granted clearance by NCIP (National Commission of Indigenous People) 1. Mahirap kumuha ng clearance 2. May shift of paradigm din na nangyayari (introduced by American-German Philosopher, Historian Thomas Kuhn) a. Paradigm is a way of understanding something. It is consist of concepts, theories, and methods about something 3. Mahirap mag-aral ng ibang grupo kasi magastos (transportation, titira ka sa community nila, you don’t speak their language, and any place or group that is not yours are considered risky research environment) a. Wala kang familiarity sa aaralin mo 2. Linguistic Anthropology Originated from philology or interest with the study of language. At this time, the methods have not emerged yet. Nung nagkaron lang ng specialist tsaka nagkaron ng methods kasi dati enthusiasts lang 3. Archeology about the past without talking about culture May specialists 4. Physical Anthropology (new concept of this is Biological Anthropology) Aided by sophisticated technology—laboratory technology Ang nagtuturo nito ay galing sa Biology or di kaya naman doctor *Pinagsama to sa America na tinawag na Anthropology  - Mahirap to kasi you have to get a specialist for each approach *4 field approach is also called Boasian Anthropology (Franz Boas American-Jew) *Madugo discussion sa Archeo and Physical kasi may involved na science (Summary) Basic concepts to remember: 1. 4 field approach 2. Boasian Anthropology 3. Biocultural approach *collectively, this is anthropology in the Philippines Homo erectus in the Philippines no fossils, just tools *Oldowan is the oldest stone tools MODULE 1: Cultural Anthropology Concepts of culture and society The word "anthropology" comes from the Greek anthropos ("human") and logia ("study") ○ The study of man What makes a man is culture The founder of anthropology was not an academic he was somebody who wrote on culture ○ He was an english nobleman who loved researching and writing ○ He went back to oxford BOAs Culture as “Kultur” (Ger) refers to culture as idea about something that is local, native, national, e.g. German (volk, folk) vs french (civilizations) As an influence derived from the ideas of JG Herder, who posited that nations have language and culture unique to each Herder’s “unpolitical” ideas of “nation” influenced nationalism and helped legitimize the state For Herder, folklore is a source of culture, where folk (Ger folk) means “people” as opposed to the elite, the royalty Herder’s ideas that culture as idea, local, and unique influenced F. Boas For Boas, culture is “in the mind,” therefore, could be reproduced in another milieu e.g., German culture in the USA adobo in airplanes (PAL) like sasakay ka ng airplanes papunta new york e PAL ung plane mo so pwede nila ilagay don yung adobo which is a significant culture in the PH Johann Gottfried Herder Herder states that folklore is a source of culture, where folk, Ger Volk, means “people” as opposed to the elite, the royalty. Herder’s ideas that culture is idea, local, and unique influenced F. Boas. Herder also posited that language determines thought, and language and culture are two factors that create a nation, hence, national language, national culture (national character) These ideas extend to music, dance, art, etc. *pinakanakakatakot is idea kasi you don’t see it nasa utak lng sya ng tao. *culture is an idea of doing something Functionalism David Émile Durkheim (French) Emphasis on Society: Culture as beliefs and values that integrate the individual into society Solidarity is either mechanical or organic. Mechanical if solidarity is achieved through culture, arising from the fact of living together, organic through division of labor Functionalism: Bronisław Malinowski (English) Polish who migrated to England Emphasis on the individual Society satiates individual needs through culture. Society invents something to meet individual needs These needs (biological) are: nutrition, reproduction, bodily comforts, safety, movement, health, and growth nag invent ang society to satisfy our needs kunwari nabuntis ka and di ka pinanagutan you can give ur child sa orphanage or dswd Structuralism Claude Levi-Strauss (Jew) Culture as mode of thought; reaction to endless relativising in anthropology Binary opposition is the universal, evolutionary, e.g., the raw and the cooked pag something is universal then it is not relative according to him, if the mother and daughter are friends, the father and daughter are not Marxism culture as ideology ideology as a dominant idea (about something) Function of ideology: support, prop of power, rationalize the status quo, the order of things, the state De certeau  culture as practice-tactics (what you do), operations, ways of doing things, including uses in everyday life it is how you behave Elite culture - produce culture and put it out to others (ordinary ppl) to use Popular culture - obtains from the consumption of culture put out to “Others to use” culture is very coercive MODULE 2: Physical anthropology an old term since ngayon ay Biological anthropology na the concept of this is evolution evolution is according to stephen gould: it was “change” but now in anthropology it means progress this is influenced by evolutionist charles darwin through his book Descent of Man from ___ to homosapien Yucatan Peninsula (part of mexico pababang south america): tawag sa indians don ay mayan cities na ginawa ng mayan: tikal but tinubuan na ng forest so “lost” na tawag sa kanila (bec of climate change) civilization nasaan na ang nakatira sa cities na to? they became peasants (either may maliit na land or nagrerent ng land as a farmer) pag bumaba ka pa sa peru: inka nagcollapse ang civilization bec of climate change since they cannot anymore plant corn (originated from new world mexico) an evolution can be micro or macro (long) macroevolution in human evolution refers to speciation microevolution is mga pagbabago withtin a short period of time 100 years of solitude by Gabriel Garcia Marquez (microevolution) evolution of colombian society where a character has a disease na di pa alam ang tawag sa time na yon ng scientific community pero early onset of dementia yung sakit in modern terms sya nagstart ng magic realism In Germany (and france), Anthropology means physical anthro walang language, at archeo if you mean culture and social it means ethnography Subfields of Physical Anthropology Paleontology the science concerned with fossil animals (paleozoology) and plants (paleobotany) the study of what fossils tell us about the ecologies of the past, about  ○ Plant (paleozoology) ○ Plants (paleobotany) ○ Tells us about the ecologies, evolution, and the place of humans in the world Related concepts to paleontology human paleontology (paleoanthropology): study of prehistoric human and proto-human fossils did we really live the forest for the savannah ang bipedalism (standing with two feet) ba ay result of living in the forest predispose na ang ancestors nung forest dwellers na sila Taphonomy: study of the processes of decay, preservation, and the formation of fossils in general Australopithecine: bones nila ay may cracks bec of fighting (raymond dark) important bec we have to know bat hindi normal ang fossils para maintindihan natin in today's period According to Elisabeth Vrba, ang environment ni lucy (scientific name is Australopithecus afarensis) ay nagdry na yung sa grassland so sa gilid may mga kahoy then maliliit na bodies of water considered to be the most complete fossil indicator of foot na bipedal: ung maycurve sa may paa so the deeper the curve the better fingers niya ay crooked so lucy was a walker and at the same time was a climber Paleoecology: Study of the ecology and climate of the past, as revealed both by the fossils and by other methods Paleontology incorporates knowledge from biology, geology, ecology, anthropology, archeology, and even computer science to understand origins, survival, and extinction since life arose hindi pwede mahiwalay ang environment sa ating kasaysayan Informs anthropology about the history of our own species, Homo sapiens, along with our ancestors and extinct relatives Ethology The branch of zoology that studies animal behavior. It is traced to Darwin and American and German ornithologists (C.O. Whitman; O. Heinroth; W. Craig) Example: Konrad Lorenz - imprinting (attachment), the early, rapid that enables the organism to attach to the first things he perceives (sound, smell, touch) that is irreversible, e.g., ducklings following a human being, cats attacking incomers hayop na pinag aralan ni K. lorenz (austrian): geese sumusunod sa nanay nila lagi, inaattack strangers so how do we explain this? ang unang nakita nila ay kanilang mother at meron ding perception on environment so kung wala silang perception then iaattack ka nila. Homology - assumes sameness between animal and human behavior, e.g., territoriality,  aggression, family, sex Human behavior may be inferred from 1. Animals in general - e.g., isolation in times of disease (group behavior para di macontaminate ung iba so that the grp will survive) so quarantine is not uniquely human, it also originated in croatia; abandonment of parasite (fleece, ticks) infested dems 2. Solitary animals - e.g., mating among tigers since ang babae at lalaki di nagkikita unless mating szn tas minsan namamatay pa yung babae sex is violent since aggressive yung lalaki similar to how humans do r*pe kasi hindi receptive ang babae and sa humans kasi consent ang tawag 3. Social animals - e.g., cooperation in ants; pecking order in birds, cannibalism in fish, snakes, apes nuances of things are specific in our respective context Primatology Primatology - a branch of ethology specializing on primate behavior e.g., prosimians, monkeys (tatlo ata), apes (apat lang to: gorilla, chimpanzee, orangutan in which orang means man and utan means, bonobo pero anatomically, bonobo pinakamalapit sa tao kasi small bone siya or gracile) Prosimians - lemurs from madagascar Monkeys - long or short tailed J Goodall on chimps diet, family, tool making and use, violence and cannibalism chimp diet is not dahon but diverse (omnivory) cannibal sila mostly babae esp if buntis or kapapanganak Fore - Degusta said ung village daw nila ay sa basaruhan nila naghahalo ang buto ng baboy at tao kasi ang tingin nila sa tao ay meat. then meron silang neighbor in new guinea na mga cannibal at may sakit called kuru. naapektuhan lng nila ito ay mga old women kasi ang pinapakain sa kanila ay brain—pag nakakacapture sila sa war napapakain sa kanila ung brain Mad cow disease sa animals din (?) sa new guinea pero around the world meron tayong Jakob chuchu kasi we were once cannibal D. Fossey on gorilla vocalization, social organization, diet, infanticide vocalization in humans is speech since walang speech pag walang vocalization hunting and gathering society involves infanticide since pag ang bata or matanda ay nakakaimpede ng movement then pag di na rin bagay ang bata sa life form then iiwan na siya F DE WAAL ON bonobo gynecocracy, altruism, compassion, kindness, empathy, patience, sensitivity, homosexuality, “love not war” 98.5% genes are match with us pero kulang pa rin to kaya di sila advance magisip like us kaya language and art are late development since it requires high level of thinking  Altruism example in anthro: gifting without expecting something in return homosexuality like ung batang bonobo dinadakma ang sandata ng malaking bonobo friendliness and cooperation ang indication ng society (?) so pag may character di sila magsusurvive outside R. Wrangham on fighting (but not killing) chimps and gorillas do not kill Patterson on gorilla intelligence, language studied the level of intelligence of gorilla (kalavel lang ng 7 year old) Genetics Study of inheritance, dna variations and their interactions with environmental factors e.g., “ethnic diseases” Huntington’s disease among Ashkenazi jews they lived in small compact cities ghetto or in new york terms “inner city” naging endogamic sila (especially jewish intellectuals) This differs in accordance with one’s social class hypertension among black descendants from west africa umiihi lang sila pag kailangan since yun yung water nila diabetes among pacific islanders mataas carboload early onset dementia in Antioquia, Medellin, Colombia (founder effect, bottleneck effect) (discussed earlier) Denisovan introgression among aetas of the PH and Melenessians. 30-40 thousand years ago. sunda inhabitants are aeta or negrito 40% ay nasa Zambales bec of isolation (but there are no such thing as isolation in an island or archaeological country) SMITHSONIAN MODEL OF HUMAN EVOLUTION 3.6m Australophiticus africanus 1.9m Homo erectus (turkana boy) 300k H. Sapiens (earliest humans, archaic) 160k H. sapiens sapiens (AAMH) MODULE 3: Archeology Archeology - the study of the past based on material remains that may be artifacts (stone tools) or features (temples) Archeology studies change over time, seeking for patterns and explanations, e.g., “rise and collapse” of civilizations It is concerned with where, when, and how people lived and why ○ E.g., Why did people choose to live in difficult environment, e.g., Tikal (maya) and Angkor (Khmer) in Jungies; Ur (Sumer) and Harappa and Mohenjo-Darro (indus  River) in deltas? ○ Why is Indonesia building a new capital (Ibo Kuta Nusantara in the jungles of East Kalimantan in Borneo? human nature want challenge so we want to build city in this impossible place archeology describes a culture so if you do archeology in batanes, you go in the shore bec andon ang artifacts sabi ni belwood - austronesians from taiwan who migrated to the philippines were headhunters and the first that they reached was batanes Prehistoric archeology is the study of the past of preliterate groups, e.g., Indigenous Peoples before contacts with literate groups ○ may basis or criteria Classical archeology is the study of civilizations, empires in Egypt, the Middle East and the Mediterranean, e.g., Greece, Rome, that may involve the use of texts Underwater archeology: examines underwater sites in oceans, lakes, and rivers, using special gear, e.g., scuba equipment, and excavation methods suited for underwater sites, e.g., shipwreck on Breaker Reef in SQ Palawan, cenote Ethnoarchaeology is the study of contemporary societies to help reconstruct the past, e.g., pottery, settlement patterns, boatbuilding ○ pottery and boatmaking inaaral sa ph pag ethnoarchaeology Other Types Archaeozoology Archaeobotany Digital archeology linguistic archeology landscape archeology experimental archeology e.g., watch living in the Past (BBC, 1978) documentary and interviews real people trying to live in the past Model: C.J. Thomsen, Guide to northern Archeology (1848) Three-age Theory (materialist, technological development in pre history) Stone Age (-3300 BC) - tools and weapons made of stones,bones, wood; divided into 3: Paleolitihic (old stone age, unpolished tools), hunting and gathering (but gathering does not use tools) Mesolithic Neolithic (New Stone age, polished) pag polished ang tools they are fit to use in agriculture fossils discovered in great rift are either in tanzia, kenya, at Ethiopia universal hunting - butchering, disarticulation , skinning contribution of women: gathering (before) foraging (now)  sa food ay 75%-80% (from gathering) while the remaining is from hunting so… why is society male? kasi 20-25% na food ay may status (e.g., meat) this status goes into circulation as a gift according to marcel mauss who wrote the gift on reciprocity, without the gift there's no society because receiving urge sthe individual to give in return like may unsettling feeling ka na you are tasked to give back originally, lahat ng language ay may click like the kung mas magaling kumindat ang mga babae E. Fridl - the first society was already male Bronze Age (Copper Age, 3300-1200BC) - first use of metals, metallurgy (copper and gold), writing Iron Age - (1200-600 BC) - tools and weapons made of iron and latter steel substitute for bronze Model: Ancient Society, L.H. Morgan (1877) morgan was a lawyer pero marami siyang interests kasi yun ang uso non encyclopedic) Stage Culture Savagery Hunting and gathering Barbarism Pastoralism, herding Civilization Agriculture *domestication of plant first before animals. Domesticates are fed in winter e.g., fodder for goats, sheep, cattle; grains for fowls chopper or crusher (para sa bones) Model: Marx (Engels, Origin of the family, private property and the state, 1884, 1902) Primitive - classless, e.g., hunting society and gathering, foraging slavery - classical e.g., civilization, empired - kapalit ng tao ay iron kasi it was used to make tools feudalism - serfdom, medieval society - serf refers to somebody on land bec land was principal on society capitalism - bourgeoisie, modern communism - withering of the state, modern - first communism was primitive socialism - is transitory to communism. Marx based his model on Morgan’s. it is historical-materialist, grounded on property, social class  - according to Engels, modern family is a nuclear family (parents and children) - pag parents lang na walang children, its not a family its only a couple - modern family is the effect of a western rationaly - pag modern, western sya which is according to Tylor, veber - stem: nuclear family plus grandparents - extended: multiple families considered as household - e.g., dusun, tatang borneo - for warfare and friendly to old, children, sick bec there's somebody who will take care of them Model: V.G. Childe, Man Makes Himself (1936) V.G. Childe, a Marxist, was the first proponent of Marxist archeology He introduced the concept of “archeological culture” = recurring assemblage of artifacts demarcate a distinct culture group he is one of the founders of Neolithic archeology Lubbock (1865) introduced the term “neolithic” to refer to settlements supported by agriculture Child theorized on the Neolithic as (a) the (First) Agroculture Revolution and (b) urbanization that, according to him, originated in the oasis (iran) where human and animals met, leading to domestication of animals 3 stage of agriculture wave mechanization of tools, ○ dapat kasi makadevelop ng bagong crafts according to Childe, agriculture “made” (domesticated) man in that the shift from hunting (nomadism) to agriculture (settlement) set him apart from animals, involving domestication of animals first (herding) before ○ goats and sheeps were the first domesticated animals in iran childe theorized that the change is in effect of diffusion migration not from within society because man is not change-oriented eight markers of civilization (1) cities (urbanization); (2) the state like islam (centralized government); (3) institutional religion like catholicism (theocracy, state religion, complex religion). (4) writing; (5) literature (epic), (6) monumental architecture e.g., pyramids, ziggurats; metallurgy; (7) foreign, long distance trade: (8) specializations (division of labor), (9) public work e.g., irrigation, pyramids, forts MODULE 4: Linguistics Anthropology originated from philology ○ Philology - the study of the origin of language and writing, literature, culture culture as derived from literature Dichotomies: synchronic vs diachronic, theoretical vs applied; and macro vs micro Synchronic (structural, descriptive) - description of language as it is at a given time diachronic (historical) - the history and development of a language especially the structural changes that have take place in it ○ when the grammar changes, ibang language na sya Oldest considered na may writing ay indo-aryan (sanskrit), kaya first ethics na full ay  mahabharata and rama chuchu oldest language na spoken = farsi (language of iran) from region fars aryan refers to iran in socsci, linguistic is the first to have scientific method Synchronic (structural descriptive) description of language as it is at a given time, McKaughan and B. Al—Macaraya, A MaranaoDictionary; Saleeby, Moro History, Law and Rel (1903), contains an orthography Diachronic (historical) the history and development of a language, specially the structural changes that have taken place in it, L.Reid, “issues in Austronesian Historical Linguistics” (1917), on long vowels (elongation) in Aeta that exist as short vowels since the disappearance *k, *q, and *h ○ structural changes = changed in grammar then the language would transform like hindi na maiintindihan Theoretical linguistics aims at the construction of a general theory of the structure of language or of a general theoretical framework for the description of language, e.g., R. Blust, The Austronesian Languages (2013), Australian National University, the first description of Austronesian in its entirety Applied linguistics The application of the finding and techniques to practical tasks, in particular, improved methods of language teaching ○ E.g., total physical response - saying the words with gestures, exaggerated facial expressions, body movement, students following after the teacher, correct pronunciation. microlinguistics analyzing language as it is without reference to such aspects as social function (communicative or aesthetic), acquisition, production and reception of speech, e.g., why some American English words are spelled differently from their english counterparts Macrolinguistics includes all of these aspects of language, e.g., how English had evolved in different regions in the world, includes: psycholinguistics, sociolinguistics, anthropological linguistics, dialectology, stylistics, mathematical and computational linguistics ○ mother tongue - dominant ○ the first language that we speak is based on the language we speak at home Dialectology - the study of the regional forms of a language or in a small group (pwedeng regional grp); explores the dynamic relationship between society and language ○ (1) english: southern American dialect, African American Vernacular English, and  Appalachian dialect ○ (2) Spanish: canary island spanish, S. Ameeican Spanish, E. Guinea Spanish ○ (3) Tagalog: Bulacan, Laguna, Batangas; Bisaya: cebu, bohol, panay tagalog na tagalog is tondo bec the rules of tondo were the rulers of manila so pag sinabing manila tagalog = tondo tagalog Stylistics - subfield of applied linguistics that studies the use of devices (figurative language, syntactical patterns) to produce expressive or style especially in texts Mathematical and computational linguistics mathematical linguistics: applying mayhematical methods and concepts to linguistics systems e.g., machine translations, where computer algorithms are used to automatically translate text or speech from one language to another, e.g., English text intro French computational linguistics: focuses on developing language models based on simple formalisms, e.g., machine translatipns, grammar and style check, infromation retrieval, assisted language learning Intellectual Traditions: 19c W. von Humboldt (d. 1835) - inspired by J.G. von Herder, believed in: ○ the links between language and national character national charac of japanese is based on face so pag pangit sila they commit seppukon ○ language is dynamic, an activity ○ language is about rules (underlying principles) that govern utterance Intellectual Traditions: 20c Structuralism (European tradition) - shows that form, pattern, or structure that underlies language is different speaking, speech a system underlying actual behavior as speaking, speech) ○ dialectic ○ Form is different from pattern (way of speaking) de Saussure, Cours de Linguistique Générale (Course in General Linguistics 1916) Dichotomy/distinction between 1) langue and parole; (2) form and substance; and 3) synchronic and diachronic F. De Saussure: Synchronic Linguistics Langue (language) - the regularities, patterns that underlie utterance; and parole (speech) - utterance, language behavior Analogy: Mozart's piece Turkish March is to langue (substance, material) and the different performances of the piece to parole (form) Semiotics (study of meaning) - meaning is not given, e.g., dictionary; it is something to be determined between interlocutors (those involved in dialogue, conversation, talk, e.g., repeat questions in the congressional hearing on how Sheila Guo and company escaped from the Philippines ○ Kasi before Saussure, ang sinasabi ay meaning is known  construction of meaning is based on experience of contrast, similarity, continuity ○ If meaning is not clear, maybe it is something created or constructed Distinctions: signifier - the physical appearance of the sign (form), such as a word, Image, or sound; signified - the concept or meaning associated with the signifier e. g., signifier: man [maen]; signified = (a) adult male human being; (b) human being of either sex; (c) operate (the machine); m(d) defend (the fort), fortify the spirits (manned himself with courage); (e) N. American informal, to express surprise, admiration, delight, "Man, what a show!" Distinction: denotation - direct, explicit meaning; connotation - implied meaning, nuance ○ E.g., denotation = man as male; connotation = man as male, human, person, individual, husband, lover, partner Synchronic linguistics (structural, descriptive) - the structure of a language system at a given point in time Diachronic linguistics (historical) - the historical development of isolated elements - it should be atomistic (existing or operating separately from others) The Prague School: The Prague School (19205-1930s: W. Mathesius, R. Jacobson, N. Trubetskoy) Stress the (a) function of elements within language, (b) the contrast of these elements to one another, and the (c) pattern (system) formed by these contrasts e.g., Subject, doer, actor (noun, pronoun), Verb (act, action, predicate) Object, receiver of action, something on which action is applied (noun, pronoun): “Si Alice Guo (S) ay nameke (V) ng citizenship (O)" (pattern 1: SVO); Pineke (V) ni Alice Guo (S) and (kanyang) citizenship (0) = (pattern 2: KSO) Distinctive-feature analysis of sounds - contrasting articulatory (how the sound is produced) and acoustic features compose a distinct sound in any language, and any two sounds of a language (pair of sounds) perceived to be distinct have at least one feature contrast in their compositions e.g., the "b" in "bill) is voiced, while the "p" in "pill" is voicelest; the "i” in "bit" is aspirated, while the "e" in "bet" is unaspirated; the "f" in "face" is a dental fricative, while "p" in "pace" is a bilabial plosive The Prague School Distinctive-feature analysis of sounds is incorporated within the standard model of transformational grammar, e.g., "John saw Mary (SVO)." "Mary was seen by John (OSV)," "Who did John see (OSV)." "Nakita ni Juan si Maria (VSO)," "Si Maria ay nakita ni Juan (OVS)," "Sino ang nakita ni Juan (OVS)." In Tagalog speech, "Nakita ni Juan si Maria (VSO);" while, "Si Maria ay nakita ni Juan (SVO)" is an inverted form that is grammatically correct but awkward in speech. Functionalism - the study of how elements of a language accomplish cognition, expression, and conation (mental purpose, desire) — to syntax (word order) and the structure of literary texts ○ E.g., greeting, introduction, asking questions, making explanations, agreeing/disagreeing American Tradition  F. Boas - (a) each language is unique; (b) unfamiliar languages, particularly American Indian, must be recorded before they are influences by other languages or become extinct, thus preventing Boas from developing methods and theories of language Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis (E. Sapir and B.L. Whorf) or linguistic relativity states that language determines perception and thought, e.g., Filipino has more words for rice than corn; Inuit has 40 words for snow ○ May mga grupo na they dont name the words they dont like like we dont have a Tagalog translation for incest pero sa bisaya ay unay eg. "The cat sat on the mat," "The mat was sat upon by the cat," "Who sat on the mat?" Since the subject "cat" is a noun and the object "mat' is also a noun, can the "The cat sat on the mat" be stated as "The mat sat on the cat?" No: "The cat sat on the mat" is the accepted sentence in the English language, while "The mat sat on the cat" is not. S. Lamb - Stratification grammar - language is organized hierarchically in terms of strata, as follows: phonology (sound), morphology (form, how words are formed), syntax (word order), semantics (meaning) Phonology - study of sound system within a language or between languages, including phonetics, e.g., the word "sit" is composed three sounds: "s", "'", and "t," hence, [sit]. Semantics (Bloomfield on meaning) - meaning is an effect of the relationship between stimulus and verbal response ○ Bloomfield’s behaviorist semantics theory argues that meaning results from the relationship between stimulus and response ○ Stimulus = external to the individual, aims to elicit response, while response is the reaction of the individual to the stimulus ○ E.g., Cong. Luistro’s informing Cassandra Ong about qualified human trafficking as non bailable and punishable by life imprisonment aims to make Cassandra Ong INANG ULO YAN DI K MAKITA Z.S. Harris and N. Chomsky - Transformational-Generative Grammar, a mentalistic theory focusing on competence not performance (utterance), and arguing that all languages share common substantive forms Transformational-generative grammar is a device for generating sentences in a language It generates only the well-formed or grammatically correct sentences to create the rules that are in the mind of the speaker In Anthropological Linguistics: Language is mind/mind is language