ANTHR 110 Midterm Review PDF

Sex is biology gender is cultural interpretation of biological fact “sex is natural, gender is socially constructed” Sex “anatomical and biological characteristics” Determined based on: genitalia secondary sex characteristics (breasts, facial hair...

Sex is biology gender is cultural interpretation of biological fact “sex is natural, gender is socially constructed” Sex “anatomical and biological characteristics” Determined based on: genitalia secondary sex characteristics (breasts, facial hair, etc.) chromosomes (XX=female, XY= male) hormones certain brain structures Intersex Human sexual variation Intersex is a varied concept Some intersex people have genitalia that is not typically male nor female, others have genitalia typical for one sex but genetic makeup of a different sex, etc. Some are identified at birth, otehrs learn about it later in life (usually during puberty) Sex assignment surgeries used to be very common to “correct” this, however today many intersex people fight against these surgeries Social construction of sex sometimes sexual variations are subtle or they are very ambiguous (about equal number of male and female characteristics) It isn’t always easy to determine who is intersex and who is male or female. Is it determined from genitalia, chromosomes, or something else? Biology doesn’t really specify this, but rather humans decide it This means that sex is also socially constructed to a degree, even though it is based on biology This means that its categories can vary between groups Gender Cultural (social) interpretation of a biological fact The non-physiological aspects of a person The most common two genders are feminine and masculine, or men and women Gender is typically constructed based on someone’s sex (male genitalia=male gender). With this comes a specific set of expectations, roles, socialization, etc. This isn’t the only way to determine gender. Some cultures have different ways to determine gender. Gender binary Belief that there are only two genders (male and female)- this is closely related to sex binary There are more options than just male or female for both sex and gender The phrase “opposite gender” implies that there are only two genders Many cultures (both traditionally and today) recognize more than two genders The idea of a third or other genders is not new Gender polarization: an idea that masculinity and femininity are polar opposites Gender identity In some cultures (including Western ones) a person’s individual gender identity is important (“I identify as…”) In some other cultures, someone’s gender status is determined by the community and is not directly related to a person’s individual feelings Gender is both an individual identity and a social category Individual and collective identity Cisgender- people whose gender identity aligns with the sex assigned at birth Transgender/trans- umbrella term. People whose gender identity does not align with the sex assigned at birth This is not the same as sexual orientation- they are not the same thing. Sexual orientation Attraction one has for other people based on one’s sex/gender and other’s sex/gender Being born with particular sexual characteristics does not guarantee a specific gender identity or sexual orientation. These characteristics are independent of one another. They can also vary between cultures a lot. Nature vs Nurture Very important dichotomy in anthropology How much of human behaviour is determined by biology (nature) and how much can be attributed to socialization and culture (nurture)? Patriarchy and Matriarchy Many different meanings to both terms. Patriarchy: a system in which men hold the most power Matriarchy: a system in which women hold the most power It was once believed that there were matriarchal societies in prehistory. This is never proven; today, it is believed that there were never fully matriarchal societies No matriarchy also because: in the patriarchy, women lack power and/or are oppressed. There is no proof of a society in which men were similarly oppressed. Matrilineal, matrilocal societies Matrilineal society- the one in which kinship is based on female (mother’s) line o Opposite is a patrilineal society Matrilocal society- the one in which a married couple lives with the wife’s family/group. The husband leaves his family/group and goes to his wife’s. o Opposite is a patrilocal society A society can be matrilineal and matrilocal but not matriarchal. Just because a society is matrilineal and/or matrilocal does not mean that women rule or that they necessarily have more power than men (in many of these societies women are oppressed) Animal models Animal models of sex are somewhat controversial o Since there are so many animals and so many different strategies of looking at it, it is really easy to be biased and only look at the ones you want to see You can’t use animal behaviour to claim that humans are naturally made to behave in a certain way (such as men being dominant and aggressive or women being passive and nurturing) It is also wrong to claim that no human behaviour has a base in biology and that it is all nurture Sexual selection  Charles Darwin in the late 19th century The ability to pass your genes by finding the best or most mates There are two main strategies: o Males fighting for dominance o Females choosing males they like the best (known as female choice) Many (male) animals have features that can be detrimental to individual survival. This is because of sexual selection. If you are attractive you might get eaten by predators but you get to pass your genes on before that so its fine I guess. Female choice Females choose males based on their physical appearance and/or other visible traits. o Explains why so many animals have more attractive males than females Female choice (which was first proposed by Darwin) was originally rejected because: o Animals were not seen as being capable or making a choice (they saw it as purely mechanical) o The idea went against the prevailing ideas about female sexuality (which was seen as a passive thing) In the 1970s, sexual selection theory and female choice gained popularity and new theories Male vs female sexual selection Robert Trivers, in 1972, said that males and females have different strategies because of different investment. o Females typically invest more resources and time in offspring, and they have a lower number of young. They want their offspring to have the best genes so they choose the best males. o Males typically invest less resources and can have more young. Because of this, they want to fertilize as many females as possible. This leads to the idea of “promiscuous” males and “choosy” females If a species requires both parents to care for the young, then the males are less promiscuous (many birds follow this pattern) Promiscuous males and choosy females This idea is very popular today but has numerous issues, such as: o It does not always work this way (for example, many species have promiscuous females) o Bird are not as monogamous as we originally thought. They form pairings and both parents care for the young, but the females often mate with other males. Primates Male behaviour, male dominance, and male hierarchies are all seen as the most important things for shaping primate social groups (including human ones) Female primatologists, in the late 20th century, talked about the importance of female behaviour and female hierarchies for shaping primate social groups Chimpanzees vs bonobos: o They are both closest relatives to humans (common ancestor 7 mya) o Chimpanzees and bonobos diverged about 1-2 million years ago o Primates show many different sexual strategies, even within their species. Male aggression and dominance, nurturing females, female hierarchies, “promiscuous” behaviour amon males and females, same-sex relations, etc. can all be seen. o There is not just one model or one strategy, and there is no one model or a proof for human behaviour Chimpanzees vs bonobos Both are very social, but chimpanzees are male-dominated Bands of unrelated adult males are very common among chimpanzees, which is rare among bonobos Bonds between the sexes among bonobos are much stronger than those of the chimpanzees They have a very different social organization Nature vs nurture Important in terms of figuring out whether things (sex, gender, sexuality, etc.) are innate or learned The role of socialization “Nurture”: socialization, enculturation, learning, internalizing and following norms and values of a society and culture Gender: socio-cultural construction How do children learn gender in terms of their own culture? o Gendered behaviour, speech, and roles are all learned o What girls are like vs what boys are like o Belonging to a gendered group o This socialization does not stop in childhood Gender nonconforming people (still have rules for them) All of this is culturally specific Sherry B. Ortner- is female to male as nature is to culture? Highly influential paper in 1972 She had some dated ideas, and made numerous additions when criticized She originally asked why female subordination is universal across all cultures o Her old answer was that women are inferior (in terms of brain capacity, strength, etc.- all things related to nature). ▪ Women are biologically inferior to men by these standards o But then she said the answer isn’t actually biology because women aren’t naturally inferior to men so it has to be culture All cultures face the same universalities of human existence, such as how we have physical bodies, we procreate, and we die This doesn’t mean that humans are biologically made to behave in certain ways These biological constraints are something all humans and cultures face, so each culture needs to have some way to deal with birth, death, physical bodies, etc. Now Ortner is saying that universal subordination of women has a lot to do with nature vs culture dichotomy, and all human groups have ideas of what is natural and what is cultural Typically, culture is seen as being superior to nature o Makes us human, makes us beat biological predetermination. We aren’t animals, we have thoughts, reason, initiative, etc. to adapt and change what we have been given naturally o Nature is simpler and culture is more complex  Ortner: the reason for universal subordination is that women are associated with nature and men are associated with culture o This is because women have more biological things, such as menstruation, giving birth, and breastfeeding so women seem closer to nature than men ▪ They have more direct contact with nature than men do o Therefore, since culture is superior to nature, men are superior to women o This leads to female subordination across all human groups around the world Criticizing Ortner Are women actually subordinate to men in every culture in the world? What about the situations where women are associated with culture? Must keep in mind that the biological constraints of the body may lead to similar cultural ideas. This may explain why female subordination is so common, if not truly universal Instead of saying there is universal subordination, it might be better to say that men and women generally occupy two different domains (spheres) within a society Nature or nurture? The interplay between biology (nature) and culture (nurture) is complex The biocultural approach to anthropology would say that both nature and nurture are mutually constitutive of certain aspects of human behaviour (but not all of them) o Such as sexuality The environment is a huge influence, and it isn’t necessarily about genes and other biological aspects Constructing gender and building identity Gender can be very personal, as it is a sense of one’s own identity. This aspect is often emphasized in the West Gender isn’t simply about one’s identity though, it is also an important social category We like to categorize people into different groups (race, gender, etc.)  Gender as a social category is seen in different (all) societies, but it varies in how it is presented/seen Social classification Social categories for classifying people into groups We are born into the system of social classification, we didn’t ask for it How we stand in relation to others is culturally-specific. Different cultures can have different categories. o This classification can be done based on many parameters. It doesn’t need to be natural (biological), but it is naturalized and accepted as reality (race, gender) There are often power imbalances at play (as usual) Different groups- different categories Different cultures and societies can have different gender categories The most common one is men and women- what it means to be a man or woman varies between cultures The categories and views of genders beyond the binary are also varied Categorization is typically done based on assigned sex (biology), but not necessarily Some societies aren’t as strict and there aren’t as fixed of categories o They have more fluid categories, and they see the possibility to change gender Hua people (Papua New Guinea)******* Interplay of individual identity and social classification People react to classification and its expectations (how to behave, how to be, etc.) in different ways Sometimes people accept this classification and what it means, but other times it is more complex. o Sometimes people reject their classification or they accept it but not what it means There is a system in these classifications, and it is often a power imbalance In terms of gender, there is an individual sense of self, but it is also a social category  o A social category has power relations and consequences Gender roles, gendered behaviour There are different rules on how to be, how to behave, what is/isn’t allowed, etc. These roles and behaviours are culturally specific o For example, what is considered masculine in one culture can be seen as feminine in another Each recognized gender (a social category) has ideals and norms that society sees as appropriate and desirable The rules for these are arbitrary in the sense that they are not innate (biological), but they aren’t arbitrary in the sense that anyone can do whatever they want and be accepted Gender stratification Differences in power, the power imbalance between genders These differences aren’t the same in all societies. Generally, though, men as a group tend to have more power Hegemonic masculinity refers to masculinity that is privileged over other genders There is gender discrimination and stereotypes o An example of a stereotype is how women are seen as nurturing and “good”, but incompetent Gendered spaces Different genders, which belong to different groups, often lead to different expectations, norms, and obligations This is often reflected in gendered spaces o Where women can go, and where men can go Sometimes these gendered spaces are strictly enforced, but other times they are informal Different spaces tend to lead to the division of labour (such as what men vs women do) The domestic vs public sphere The most common dichotomy here is the domestic vs public spheres They are present in many cultures (including Western ones). Women usually belong to the domestic sphere while men belong to the public sphere o A woman’s role in birth and nurturing a child results in constraining women within the home (the domestic sphere) ▪ Her main role is her biological role, aka motherhood ▪ Men do everything else. They go outside and they provide for women and children ▪ This results in men being associated with the public sphere This dichotomy is reflected in many cultures. Women are often expected to stay within the domestic sphere while men go outside in the public sphere This also results in the fact that, in many cultures, women only perform domestic (unpaid) work, while men perform public (paid) work. Men’s activities- more important? Women are often associated with the domestic sphere while men are associated with the public sphere. Michelle Rosaldo did a study and pointed out that male activities are always seen as more important and more significant than female activities are o This means that when men are performing activities such as cooking, sewing, etc., these activities are seen as more important (for example, male chefs) There is more complexity to this The idea of domestic spheres for women and public spheres for men is an oversimplification Real societies are more complex, and this clear division of spheres is a strongly westernized view (it was a cultural standard in the western society) In other places the domestic and public spheres intermingle. For example, economy and “doing business” are often part of a domestic sphere Dominance and subordination are more complex and involve many different factors. They often depend on the situation and context instead of gender alone Women also have an informal power in many (patriarchal) societies The gendered spaces aren’t just literal They aren’t only physical spaces They also refer to the boundaries, or what men and women can do There are linguistic spaces, gendered occupations Just because people aren’t forced into specific spaces does not mean that they don’t exist The boundaries are often there but they are unspoken Gender roles This refers to the different rules and expectations depending on one’s gender There are common restrictions placed upon women, but men face some too In patriarchal societies, men have more power and control and more varied roles (wider variety of things they are allowed to do), and they have more freedom of movement Women are often more limited in terms of their expected behaviours, roles they can take, and spaces they can occupy The division of labour Different spheres have a division of labour This can be true for paid work in the gendered occupations o “male” vs “female” occupations o Also true for domestic tasks (in terms of who does what) The division of labour is believed to be very old (since prehistory) “man the hunter, women the gatherer” An old hypothesis is that the division of labour where men hunt and women stay at home to care for children is natural o Aka women can’t hunt because hunting prevents them from caring for children This is often seen as a natural thing and that it can’t be changed Agta of the Philippines  They challenge the ideas about the division of labour and how women can’t hunt They are a group of modern day (mostly) hunter-gatherers They hunt wild pig, deer, and monkeys. They also fish Most of the hunting is done within the vicinity of the base camp (about 6-10km). It is a 20-30 minute walk to get to the forest where you can hunt Both men and women hunt in this society Among the Agta, there is no strict division of labour when it comes to hunting.This isn’t strictly a male activity and women aren’t seen as incapable of hunting. Agta female hunters Many Agta women of different ages are involved in hunting Female hunting is important for the community. They aren’t seen as just “helping men”, but rather they are hunters in the full sense of the world Among the Agta women, hunting activity peaks during the prime reproductive years Women will hunt during menstruation Even women with young children (less than a year old” hunt, and some nurse their children during hunting activities Given this, a woman’s reproductive role is not incompatible with hunting The only times they don’t hunt are when they’re in the late stages of pregnancy and very early stages of breastfeeding Differences between male and female hunters Both men and women hunt and both contribute significantly Women tend to hunt in groups (all female groups or mixed groups. They also often hunt with dogs). o This is for protection and socialization o Sometimes women do hunt alone- it isn’t unheard of Men tend to hunt alone Hunting doesn’t prevent women from performing parenting duties. They both hunt and care for children. Men, however, hunt but don’t provide much childcare Women will take nursing babies with them to hunting activities, while older children stay at home and other female relatives care for them (such as grandmothers or older siblings)  This all proves that women can hunt and their reproductive role doesn’t prevent them from hunting There is nothing biological or necessary that requires a strict division of labour (in others words, the idea that men hunt and women don’t hunt isn’t biologically based) The cooperation with childcare is important, as is the climate This group challenges some ideas about the division of labour, but not the others, because only women care for the children Parenting- culturally specific Different cultures have different ideas about parenting and raising children Even childbirth is a cultural event in many ways- it isn’t just biological Parenting is often a very gendered task, where women are usually responsible for taking care of children (especially small children) Motherhood is often seen as a woman’s main role in life Even when the fathers are strongly involved, their care and parenting are different than what is often expected of mothers Some cultures have women take care of children exclusively. Other women come in second before fathers. Maternal detachment and infant survival Are maternal attachment and maternal instinct natural and universal? A study done by Nancy Scheper-Hughes in North-East Brazil looked at very poor areas, referred to as shantytowns They had many problems, such as disease (parasites), hunger, and malnutrition Infant death is a common occurrence there, and it is so common that most women have to expect at least one child to die in infancy Women typically have many children and can’t dedicate equal care to all of them (there often isn’t enough food and other resources for all of them) She found that many mothers often display detachment. o A sick child is often not cared for and is basically left to die, and when they do die, a mother rarely cries or shows distress ▪ This is because this is how life goes. One shouldn’t struggle to save a child- if the child wants to die, they will die. It isn’t a good thing to try and stop it  o Maternal detachment is common in these situations o A mother has other children to care for, especially the ones who are strong enough and “want to live” Women know they will lose at least some of their children- this is a reality of their lives It sometimes seems like they aren’t caring for a weak child, but it is often due to: o Not having enough food for all children o A child being seriously ill and without medicine that can help Detachment is a way to adapt to this harsh reality o Women don’t get attached to a child until it is old enough, they accept that some chidlren will die o Being too attached causes too much suffering, which isn’t helpful to you or other children o This was also reality for poor women in western societies before the 20 th century- a child’s death is a reality that one needs to face Is maternal attachment natural? The maternal bond is considered natural, and it is assumed that many women spontaneously get attached to their children. o Assumption that they have an instant bond with them and that they know how to care for them o This isn’t assumed for fathers Western scientists of the mid 20th century stated that the lack of maternal attachment can happen if there is not enough physical contact between mother and child when the child is born However, the Brazilian shantytown study showed that there is maternal detachment, even though there is plenty of physical contact (more than in many other cultures) o This is explained by the idea that motherhood is a learned thing, and that there are many different ways to parent and to build parental attachment Is parenting gendered? It is often a gendered task Fathers have varying degrees of importance, but they are typically seen as less important than mothers  Women are often seen as more nurturing and as being better with children, so childcare is considered a female task o This isn’t universal though In some cultures, fathers are considered extremely important (they are nurturing and perform a lot of childcare) o This means that the division of labour (in terms of how parenting is a woman’s job) is a learned behaviour Aka father-infant bonding A study was done among the Aka hunter-gatherers in central Africa It is more egalitarian in terms of gender (equal) Parents tend to be indulgent and are very attentive They hunt in small groups- men, women, and children all participate in hunting. Women contribute to food as much as men do Wives and husbands spend a lot of time together, during hunting, at camp, at home, etc. Aka fathers have a strong bond with their children and spend a lot of time with them o They often carry their children Parenting is an important activity for men in the Aka society o It is for women too- there is no division of labour This is different compared to american fathers, where they are predominantly seen as the breadwinners and don’t spend a lot of time with their children (less than mothers do) o This distinction doesn’t exist among the Aka- fathers are gentle Gendering of parenthood questioned The Aka study questions the ideas about parenting as being a woman’s activity naturally There are numerous theories why women are naturally better parents, and how a mother’s presence and love is necessary for a child’s development, but not the father’s. is this true though? Parenting is culturally specific and learned Gender vs sexual identity Gender and sexual orientation are not the same thing Gender identity refers to how one identifies in terms of gender, while sexual identity (orientation) refers to who they are attracted to Sexuality: what you do or what you are? In the West (at least today, but not necessarily in the past), sexuality is understood in terms of sexual orientation o It is the sexual attraction towards people of a specific gender (or genders) o This isn’t about what one does (if a person identifies as straight, they are straight even if they don’t have sex with anyone) o This approach to sexuality isn’t universal In some cultures (including western ones in the past centuries), sexuality is based on what someone does (the sodomy laws) o This is often important (particularly in relations between men): who is the penetrating partner and who is penetrated? o If it is the men doing the penetrating, then it isn’t seen as out of the norm, regardless of the gender of the partner Gender and sexuality Someone’s gender isn’t the same as their sexuality o You can be trans and straight Different cultures may have different ways to understand the relationship between gender and sexuality o In some cultures, someone’s sexuality or sexual practices are directly related to gender ▪ This means that your gender isn’t necessarily determined by your genitalia (sex) or your self-identity, but rather your sexual practices Brazilian transgender sex workers This case study focuses on a specific group of sex workers in brazil (done in the 1990s) Travesti- effeminate, assigned male at birth  o They are a known group in Brazil (a gender identity) o Most live in poverty, they are discriminated against, and many are sex workers o Travesti allow themselves to be penetrated by other men, particularly in their personal life (with their boyfriends) o They change their bodies to appear more feminine. They may take female hormones illegally and inject (often dangerous) silicone ▪ The goal of this is to enlarge buttocks, hips, and other body parts to appear more feminine o Travesti are not gay men, but they aren’t necessarily trans women o Some Travesti do identify as trans women, but many do not o They see themselves are feminine but not as women, and often don’t want sex-affirming surgeries o To understand this, we must think about Brazilian culture: ▪ There is a clear gender division between men and women, and there are sharp gender opposites. Gender is closely linked to sexuality and sexual role: penetrating vs being penetrated ▪ Men are the ones that do the penetrating, and as long as you only penetrate your partner, you are considered a man. You may not even be seen as homosexual if you are strictly a penetrating partner. ▪ If you allow yourself to be penetrated, then you aren’t a man. You are seen as a homosexual, which doesn’t only refer to sexual orientation but also has gender connotations Men and not-men Instead of men and women, it can be more precisely said that genders in Brazil are along the lines of men and not-men The main factor in this is the act of penetration (whether you are doing it or not) The Travesti see themselves are “more honest” than gay men because gay men “pretend to be men, but are not”. o In other words, they keep their masculine appearance but because they are penetrated during sex, they are not men o They want to be feminine and attractive to men but do not want to be women (because they are not)  o This case study can make us think about the ways different cultures can link gender and sexuality, and even construct gender categories through sexual practices Initiation rituals: sexual or not? What is considered sexual is not universal An example of this is initiation rituals that include sexual contact Depending on the culture this has different meanings, but typically it is Rites of Passage o Sometimes done to properly construct soneone’s gender Samba initiation rituals A case study was done on Sambia culture (in Papua New Guinea) Sambia has beliefs that men and women reach reproductive power in different ways Women do so spontaneously (menstruation makes a woman reach her full procreative power), and femininity happens naturally Masculinity isn’t seen as something that happens naturally- it has to be achieved through rituals Boys are separated from their mothers around the age of 7. There are initiation rituals that occur during puberty that ensure he grows into a proper man After the initiation he goes back to the village and marries a woman Male vs female fluids: male bodily fluids are prescious for men but aren’t easy to get and keep. Female fluids happen naturally and are dangerous and polluting to men In order to become a proper man, a boy needs to accumulate male fluids. This is achieved through rituals of initiation. These initiation rituals involve the ingesting of semen from older men o Semen is seen as having vital powers. To ingest the semen means to come in touch with those vital powers- by accumulating male fluids We must understand these rituals from their cultural context, not ours o This brings the ideas of cultural relativism vs ethnocentrism into play From a Western cultural context, this can be seen as child sexual abuse, but it makes an integral part of socialization and assuming a gender role in Sambia culture We can’t understand their rituals through Western notions of sexuality and gender o Can we say that these rituals are an example of homosexuality?  Sex in Sambia culture is closely related to the organization of society, while in the West it is more of an individual, private thing The importance of women at work The domestic sphere of women and public world of men is an oversimplification but is usable in many situations o One of the main divisions is who works and who stays at home Western division of labour- Victorian culture Victorian (19th century Europe) culture- the emphasis on the separate spheres for men and women. Women were to stay at home with children, while men were to work outside of the home and provide for the family o Poor women and women of colour also worked though Women and paid work In many cultures, women are traditionally expected to take underpaid work at home (taking care of children and household) but this isn’t traditionally expected of men o Opposite is also often true- women aren’t expected to take paid work outside fo the home (to have jobs and careers) o This is a traditional (old) view in Western cultures as well as many other cultures Female gardeners in Gambia Up until the mid 1970s in Gambia, the economy relied on peanut farms o Men worked on these farms while women had domestic responsibilities in the home In the mid 1970s there was less rainfall and the peanut farms did not bring as much of a profit anymore o International buyers also preferred other types of products As a result of this, vegetable and fruit gardens were made Women began to work in the fruit and vegetable gardens while men continued to work on the farms  This was also helped by Women in Development programs (which were aimed at third world women to engage in economic activities) The fruit and veggie gardens brought profit while the profits from the farms declined o They were very profitable and women brought significant amounts of money into the home- often more than their husbands o Women began to spend a lot of time outside of the home to take care of the gardens All of this was a change to the traditional way of life The community adapted to this new economic reality by: o Men viewing gardens as women’s “second husbands” because they brought them money just like a husband is supposed to do (something that their own husbands can’t do anymore) Big change in Gambia Gardening was a marked change o Women were the ones that had more money, and they could provide for themselves and the entire family (including the husband) This economic security gave women certain freedoms o However, many women gave significant amounts of money to their husbands (they often asked for loans and never repay them) o Giving a cash gift enables women to keep control of the money ▪ They get to control how much a husband spends but the cash gifts also keep them happy (he doesn’t complain that she isn’t at home) o More freedom of movement for women, as well as more power and more money o This was a much better option than fighting with the husband over money and/or having him complain about you never being in the home Moroccan factory workers The Moroccan garment industry was important for the country’s economy since the 1980s (article was written in the late 1990s) Women were the main workforce in these factories. It is a gendered occupation, where nearly all workers are women  The typical worker is a young, unmarried woman who lives with her parents. The fathers and brothers are typically unemployed. These women are often the main breadwinners of the family o However, they are also unmarried women in a patriarchal society o Despite being the breadwinners, these young women maintain traditional roles and adhere to patriarchal hierarchies. They see themselves as subservient to male members of their households. They see men as protectors and women as dependents. The factory was seen as a home and a family: o Factory was imagined as a private and not a public arena o All-female space so it is safe and respectable for a young, unmarried woman. It is a private space and not morally questionable o It has high windows and closed doors so strangers cannot see inside o Inside of the factory, women wear informal clothes that they might wear at home o The factory space is imagined as home, as a private space. It is appropriate for an unmarried woman. o There is a special relationship with factory owners. Almost like father- daughter relationships. ▪ Men see workers as daughters- they protect their virtue, restrict their movement to keep their reputation intact o Clear attempt to replicate the home inside of the factory Women in science Are there male and female occupations? Science is often seen as a male occupation In the world, 28% of scientists are women, and in Canada it is 34% This is for many reasons: o The lower numbers of women in science is not universal o Eastern Europe and South America have high percentages of women in science (generally equal numbers of male and female scientists) o Often a socialist legacy o The double burden is common (work and domestic obligations) Themes in this: o Woman’s financial independence- if a woman earns money, does it necessarily give her freedom and power?  o Do working women subvert gender roles and expectations? o Does it mean liberation from patriarchy and winning new gender roles? Is it empowering for women? Or, does it reinforce patriarchy? A working woman (and/or working mother) can be a norm in some cultures, and it doesn’t necessarily mean that there is gender equality or progress. It can be a very traditional thing. o A woman working and supporting her family doesn’t necessarily mean that there is no patriarchy Conclusion of working women A strict division of labour is not universal. There are cultures that do not follow this division of labour It is possible that a culture’s tradition is for a woman to work outside of the home, and it is possible for a woman to contribute significantly to subsistence and/or household budget This also doesn’t necessarily mean that there is no patriarchy, nor does it mean a better position of women (but it can help) Financial independence and personal contribution to subsistence often do give women some power but not necessarily equality Strict labour division is not the only way to be. But also, models different than this do not necessarily imply progressiveness. They are simply a traditional way in some societies and are compatible with patriarchy Why masculinities? Many times, when discussing gender and gender relations, the focus is on women This is because men are considered the default gender Men (male): a gender category in its own right, just like any other Different cultures may have very different ideas on how to be a man and what masculinity actually is There are some similarities between cultures when it comes to ideas of masculinity, but it isn’t as universal as one may think What is masculinity?  Masculinity refers to the set of attributes, qualities, and behaviours associated with men o How to be a “real man” Masculinity isn’t simply to be of male gender (or sex) or to identify as such Masculinity, in many cultures, is treated as opposite to femininity (which refers to the attributes associated with women) Often, masculinity and femininity have the opposing sets of attributes But this isn’t universal- not all cultures see men and women as opposites How do men deal with patriarchy? There are power imbalances in terms of gender These imbalances don’t necessarily mean that men are free to do as they please in the patriarchy There are rules (called patriarchal rules) that apply to men o A “proper” man, how to be a man, what is allowed, what is not allowed These rules are often very strict, precisely because masculinity is seen as superior to femininity and the “best” way to be The rules are imposed in families, everyday life, media, etc. Women also impose these rules (mothers when raising boys, for example) What are masculine attributes? Is there a “typical” masculinity across cultures? Often, what is considered masculine in one culture might not be regarded as such in another culture Do “real men” talk much or too little? Do they cry and show feelings? Do they hug and touch each other in non-sexual ways? In most cultures, masculine attributes (whatever they may be in said culture) are regarded as superior to feminine ones Masculinity is hard to attain and keep, it is often defined in very narrow terms and therefore is very easy to lose Since it is hard to attain and keep, this state is often uncertain. It may appear that it is always under possible attack. Very difficult to get there but it is really easy to lose one’s masculinity. Even small things can harm a man’s masculinity. Machismo in Spain A study from Andalusia was done that questioned what machismo is Machismo refers to just one component of the masculine code in Andalusia: virility, valor, and virtue o Mainly about the first one (virility)- proving your sexuality and sexual potency “reacting to women” (men who don’t do this are not real men” A man must demonstrate that he never fails to appreciate a woman’s beauty and that he never hesitates to do so The piropo is a verbal gift (flirting) a man will give to a passing woman Proving your masculinity To whom are you proving your masculinity Women typically ignore catcalling and men accept that o Not really done for women but rather for other men o This is important to prove your virility to other men Macho ideal- widespread in Andalusia The ideas of what makes a “real man” are widespread in the society Men have a very clear idea on what makes a “real man”, but women, too, share these ideas What isn’t macho in this culture? o Toughness, fighting, violence- seen as vulgar o Physical confrontation- rare in Andalusia (it’s not what “real men” do) o Fights and violence may be present but not as part of machismo- they are a part of other components of masculinity. Machismo only refers to a man’s sexual prowess o Another masculine idea is to be responsible and also to honour reciprocity (money, returning favours, buying drinks, etc.) Machismo: very open and intense in Andalusia o It doesn’t define masculinity in Andalusia though Machismo is just one component of masculinity in Andalusia. There are other aspects of masculinity that are equally important, but aren’t as apparent to foreigners. Seducing women is not enough to be a “real man” in Andalusia  Machismo in Andalusia is different than in some other parts of the world. No violence, no fights, no “toughness”- this isn’t a part of machismo in Andalusia. Machismo is for other men, not for women System of power in patriarchy In the patriarchy, men have more power than women and women play a subordinate role This system is reflected on all levels (including in the family and everyday life) o Men have more decision power, more freedom of movement, and more varied gender roles In some cultures, this is less pronounced than others, but in most (or all) cultures, there is a noted power imbalance between men and women There is also the matter of formal vs informal power In many societies, women are not powerless. They manage to seize power through informal means. This gives them the ability to decide and “have a say” in numerous matters Women’s power Women, in many patriarchal societies, have a significant amount of informal power. It isn’t tied to authority nor is it legitimized through institutions, but it is there. In some cases, this power is significant to the point that it becomes the driving force in a society o In other words, men occupy the positions of authority but have very little real power. Women run things behind the scenes. Men appear dominant but women have the real power. Former Yugoslavia A study from the 1960s and 1970s on machismo and cryptomatriarchy was done o They saw that it was a male-oriented culture, but women (especially old women) had a lot of the informal power o Mothers are important, and they will have the most power of all the members of the household and/or community o Male power is public and performative, but women rule behind the scenes  o Mothers and grandmothers have significant power, not wives South Slav (former Yugoslavian) culture, as well as Mediterranean- has subordination of men to their mothers Men do as mothers say, including adult men- a mother’s control and power never stop Men have machismo in public, in a performative role, but women have significant power behind the scenes, which is referred to as cryptomatriarchy There is not open dominance of women since formally, it is a patriarchal system in which men rule o It still has a lot of informal power for women Life in rural communities Women in peasant communities seem to be oppressed by men (more than those in non-rural, non-traditional communities) There is a strict division of labour (men are engaged in higher prestige productive work) Men have the highest formal authority in the household (they are the heated of the house) Women also have informal power though- the domestic sphere is important for the economy in the village, informal networks, etc. Myth of a male dominance In peasant societies, there is a myth of male dominance, which helps the division between sexes and allows each sex to keep its power Women often have more decision-making power and other forms of power than men o Men’s power and dominance is performative Even when this is not true (women having more real power than men), women do have informal power in many patriarchal societies, which makes their position better than it may seem at first glance Hostile and benevolent sexism Refers to the prejudice and stereotypes based on gender  Hostile- refers to derogatory beliefs, while benevolent refers to the not openly bad, but still condescending beliefs There is hostile and benevolent sexism against men o In the sense that men are incompetent in domestic tasks and childcare, or that they need to be taken care of Hostile and benevolent sexism are the strongest in societies with the least amount of gender equality These could be used to negotiate power by women in patriarchal societies Conclusions of this Power can take many forms, and it is important to take informal power into account (such as who is making the behind the scenes decisions and who has influence that might not be obvious at first glance) Contemporary western cultures are against the myth of male dominance and they are fighting for formal gender equality, but just because it may seem that women have no power in a culture, it doesn’t have to be true