Ancient Egypt PDF

Learn more at www.oerproject.com Ancient Egypt By Eman M. Elshaikh Ancient Egypt was the site of some of the world’s oldest agrarian societies. Over 5,000 years ago, Egyptian pharaohs first rose to power and built mighty empires...

Learn more at www.oerproject.com Ancient Egypt By Eman M. Elshaikh Ancient Egypt was the site of some of the world’s oldest agrarian societies. Over 5,000 years ago, Egyptian pharaohs first rose to power and built mighty empires and astounding monuments. For 3,000 years, Egyptian pharaohs ruled the lands of the Nile River Valley. The Nile River was the key to Egypt’s success. In this article, you’ll learn about how the river shaped Ancient Egypt and the people who lived there from c. 3400 to 30 BCE. 1050L Ancient Egypt Eman M. Elshaikh Geography and Environment Though Egypt is surrounded by desert, the Nile River provided a source of water and food that allowed farmers to flourish here. The river flooded regularly, replenishing the soil and providing water for farming. Ancient Egyptians adapted to the river’s flooding and fashioned their lives around the Nile’s seasonal changes. They built their monuments and homes along the Nile. These monuments were built near the Nile because the river was the center of Ancient Egyptian society. It influenced agriculture, the economy, and religion. The area around the river was—and still is—basically a long oasis surrounded by deserts. Thousands of years ago, the climate of North Africa began to grow drier gradually. As deserts expanded, people migrated closer to the river. Foraging and pastoralist communities relied on the river for food and water for centuries before anyone started farming. Eventually, around 6000 BCE, people began to make permanent agricultural settlements near the Nile. Permanent agricultural settlements were possible because the soil was so rich. The river’s annual flooding deposited fertile, nutrient-rich soil on the riverbanks, making it excellent for farming. Ancient Egyptians farmed barley, wheat, papyrus, and fruits and vegetables. It didn’t rain much, so the Nile was also the main water source for the crops. Egyptians also fished extensively and continued to herd, hunt, and forage. Over time, as people began to do work other than just farming, many settlements grew into urban areas. 2 Ancient Egypt Eman M. Elshaikh Big Question #1: How did geography and the environment shape the development of Ancient Egypt? Political Structure These urban areas developed into two main groups of city-states along the Nile. The first was in Upper Egypt, which is actually in the south of Egypt. True, “upper” often means further north, so it might seem confusing if you look at a map. But the region’s name has to do with the flow of the Nile. The southern region is called Upper Egypt because it has a higher elevation. The river flows down from Upper Egypt into Lower Egypt in the north, where the Nile Delta meets the Mediterranean Sea. These regions were each ruled by a different ruler or even multiple rulers. But by 3100 BCE, the two regions were ruled by a single powerful state. Historians think this happened under a ruler named King Menes, or Narmer—two names for what might have been the same person. The unity of the two regions became an important political symbol. From c. 3400 BCE to 30 BCE, 30 different dynasties ruled over Egypt. A dynasty is a form of government where a ruler passes power through the family, usually to the ruler’s children. Over 300 rulers led these dynasties. These rulers were called pharaohs, which meant “great house” in ancient Egyptian. Most—but not all—of these rulers were men; interestingly, over the many dynasties, some were not even Egyptian. These 3,000 years are divided into three periods of stability: the Old Kingdom (c. 2649–2150 BCE), the Middle Kingdom (c. 2030–1640 BCE), and the New Kingdom (c. 1550–1070 BCE). In between each of these periods, there were times when governing power was fragmented, times historians refer to as intermediate periods. Three thousand years is a really long time, but many things continued across the dynasties. One continuity was divine kingship, the idea that rulers were the link between humanity and the gods or that those rulers were gods on Earth. Egyptians built sophisticated tombs for their rulers, such as the Pyramids of Giza. They mummified the rulers’ bodies and filled the tombs with gold jewelry and other items they believed would be needed in the afterlife. Religious beliefs were closely tied to political structure: the state controlled religion, and religion supported the state’s power. The Pyramids of Giza were built during the Old Kingdom and, thousands of years later, they still stand! These pyramids were part of huge complexes. It took 25,000 people to build the largest pyramid and decades of planning and construction to complete it. The centralized Egyptian government was able to organize labor, command resources, and construct these complicated monuments. This level of organization would not have been possible if the ancient Egyptian state had not been so powerful and centralized. The Pyramids at Giza, c. 1965. © Getty Images 3 Ancient Egypt Eman M. Elshaikh Map of ancient empires c. 300 BCE including Egypt seen in orange with the Nile River in the middle. Explore more here. The state also centrally controlled agriculture. They needed to ensure they had enough food to keep their labor supply healthy and growing. Plus, periods of drought and famine weakened political unity. So, the government helped intensify agriculture, which strengthened the government. How did they do this? The state organized labor and constructed levees and canals to irrigate land farther from the Nile. They also directed floodwater toward farmland and away from areas where people lived. Over time, the state maintained standing armies, allowing for further territorial expansion and protection from invaders. The state developed a strong bureaucracy to organize agriculture, the building of monuments, and taxation. Hatshepsut, Royal Daughter, Queen, Regent, and Pharaoh Hatshepsut was one of the most powerful female pharaohs in Ancient Egypt. Born the daughter of Pharaoh Thutmose I, she later became the widowed queen of Thutmose II and then regent for her infant stepson/nephew Thutmose III in c. 1479 BCE. Not long after Hatshepsut became regent, she made herself pharaoh, possibly to deter a rival claim to the throne. During her reign, she expanded trade and the arts flourished. Hatshepsut built an expansive funerary complex across the Nile from Thebes with hundreds of statues in her honor. She died in 1458 BCE and Thutmose III became pharaoh. Toward the end of his reign, he had her temple and statues destroyed, possibly to prevent “another powerful female ever inserting herself into the long line of Egyptian male kings” (Egyptologist Peter Dorman, quoted in “The Queen Who Would Be King”). Statue of Queen Hatshepsut, Pharaoh of Egypt (c. 1473–1458 BCE). Courtesy of the Metropolitan Museum of Art, public domain. 4 Ancient Egypt Eman M. Elshaikh Big Question #2: What was the political structure of Ancient Egypt? Culture Egyptians contributed to collective learning through many innovations, especially in mathematics and written language. They created standard measurements, like the cubit, which helped them build monuments with precision. They needed very complex mathematics to build things like the pyramids. They also tracked water levels by measuring submerged columns in the river. In addition to measuring space, Egyptians measured time. They divided the day into hours and created a 365-day solar calendar not unlike the one we use today. Plus, they tracked the cycles of the Nile and organized the year into three seasons: inundation (flooding), growing, and harvest. They also surveyed the land around the Nile to make even better dams, canals, and irrigation systems. Innovations in science, the building of monuments honoring pharaohs, and control of irrigation and agriculture also strengthened the power of the government. The Egyptians also created written languages. You’ve probably seen hieroglyphics, which were developed around 2150 BCE. Hieroglyphics were made up of hundreds of small pictures and were used on monuments and pottery, mostly for ceremonial and religious purposes. But Egyptians also developed other systems of writing for recordkeeping and ordinary purposes. Records were often written on papyrus, the Egyptian version of paper made from a plant that grew along the Nile. This played a key role in administration but was also used for literature. Developments like the Egyptian language unified Egyptians, although they were likely multi-ethnic. Egyptians maintained links with other nearby societies in the Mediterranean, Southwest Ancient Egyptian hieroglyphs carved on the wall of Hathor Temple, c. 2250 BCE. © Getty Images. Asia, and modern-day northern Sudan. They built ships using imported timber and traded across the Nile, the Red Sea, and the Mediterranean. They traded for luxury goods like gold, wood, incense, and metals.. Big Question #3: What were the cultural characteristics of Ancient Egyptian society? 5 Ancient Egypt Eman M. Elshaikh Mummification The Ancient Egyptians are perhaps best known for their funerary practices including the building of pyramids and mummification of the dead. Mummification was usually reserved for wealthy individuals and those in charge of preparing the body closely guarded their practices. First the body was prepared by removing organs and drying the body. Specific rituals were performed to ensure that the dead were well equipped for the afterlife. To learn more about mummification, take a virtual tour of the British Museum’s Ancient Egyptian galleries. Coffin of Pasherihoraawesheb, incense bearer in the temple of the god Khonsu at Thebes, containing the mummy of a female, 22nd dynasty. © The Trustees of the British Museum. Society Egyptian society was diverse and hierarchical. We know based on archaeological evidence that powerful elites had larger tombs filled with valuable goods. Commoners got simpler burials. However, most common people were not enslaved; they were free peasants. Peasants tended to work for the state on projects like temple-building during the farming off-season. The state needed more than just farmers and builders, so labor was very specialized. The state needed mathematicians, priests, artists, stone cutters, and administrators. To get these workers, the state used labor as a tax. This means that instead of paying the government, people were expected to do some work every year for state projects—such as the pyramids. Wealthy Egyptians sometimes bought their way out of doing this work. Egyptian women also seemed to enjoy more equality with men than in other ancient urban societies. Ancient Egyptians had female rulers, and they believed that men and women Mural from the tomb of Queen Nefertari (r. 1279–1213 BCE) of Abu Simbel, were meant to be in harmony. Women played Thebes, showing her playing senet, an ancient Egyptian board game. Courtesy a part in farming, religion, and other areas of of the Metropolitan Museum of Art, public domain. life. They were often paid for their labor and, like men, could own land and businesses. 6 Ancient Egypt Eman M. Elshaikh Big Question #4: How was Ancient Egyptian society organized? Decline and Transformation Egypt rose from a collection of city-states and transformed into a centralized state. But as the state declined, it again fragmented into city-states with smaller, local governments. This was partly because New Kingdom rulers waged wars and expanded into new territories. Wars of expansion were very expensive, and it became difficult to control newly conquered lands. As the Egyptian state weakened, it increasingly came under the control of foreign powers, including the Assyrians, Persians, Greeks, and Romans. The last native Egyptian dynasty fell to Alexander the Great in 332 BCE. After Alexander’s death, his general, Ptolemy I, declared himself a pharaoh and ruled over Egypt. He began the Greek Ptolemaic dynasty, which lasted until 30 BCE. The capital was moved to Alexandria on the Mediterranean coast, where Egyptian and Greek cultures blended. Ptolemaic Egypt was strong and wealthy for centuries but weakened over time because of internal conflict and expensive wars. It became increasingly dependent on Rome and eventually fell under Roman control. After the death of the famed Queen Cleopatra, Egypt became a province of Rome. For more than 3,000 years, Egyptian dynasties flourished in the rich Nile Valley, with cultural and political achievements that have lasted as long as the pyramids. Cleopatra VII Cleopatra, the last pharaoh of Egypt, has captivated historians, artists, and Hollywood movie producers for centuries. She engineered a coup against her co-ruler and brother and was exiled. However, Cleopatra was politically clever and aligned herself with the new Roman ruler Julius Caesar, who helped her regain her throne. During her reign, she successfully restored Egypt’s dominance in the region. But in the bitter battle between Caesar’s successors, she chose the losing side. Rather than become Augustus’ prisoner, Cleopatra committed suicide and Egypt became a Roman province. Cleopatra, silver coin, minted in Syria, c. 36 BCE. © The Trustees of the British Museum. Big Question #5: What led to the decline and transformation of Ancient Egypt? 7 Ancient Egypt Eman M. Elshaikh Sources Brier, Bob, and Ronald S. Wade. “Surgical Procedures During Ancient Egyptian Mummification.” Chungará: Revista de Antropologia Chilena 33, no. 1 (2001): 117–23. http://dx.doi.org/10.4067/S0717-7356200100010002. Schiff, Stacy. “Rehabilitating Cleopatra.” Smithsonian Magazine, December 2010. https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/ rehabilitating-cleopatra-70613486/. Shaw, Ian, ed. The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000. Taylor, John H. Death and the Afterlife in Ancient Egypt. London: The Trustees of the British Museum, 2001. Wilson, Elizabeth. “The Queen Who Would Be King.” Smithsonian Magazine, September 2006. https://www.smithsonianmag. com/history/the-queen-who-would-be-king-130328511/. Eman M. Elshaikh Eman M. Elshaikh is a writer, researcher, and teacher who has taught K–12, undergraduate, and graduate students in the United States and in the Middle East. She teaches writing at the University of Chicago, where she also completed her master’s in social sciences and is currently pursuing a PhD. She was previously a World History Fellow at Khan Academy, where she worked closely with the College Board to develop a curriculum for AP® world history. Credit: Elshaikh, Eman. “Ancient Egypt.” OER Project, 2023. https://www.oerproject.com/ Image credits This work is licensed under CC BY 4.0 except for the following: Cover image: An illustration from the eighteenth dynasty of Ancient Egypt, depicting a noble’s pilgrimage to the Egyptian god Osiris’ temple of Abydos. © Leemage/Corbis Historical via Getty Images. Map showing Upper and Lower Egypt. By WHP, CC BY-NC 4.0. The Pyramids in Giza, c. 1965. © Archive Photos/Getty Images. Map of ancient empires c. 300 BCE including Egypt seen in orange with the Nile River in the middle. Explore more here https:// www.oerproject.com/OER-Materials/OER-Media/Images/WHP-Maps/300bce-layer-3 Statue of Hatshepsut, Pharaoh of Egypt (c. 1473–1458 BCE), from her tomb in Thebes. Hatshepsut was one of the most powerful female pharaohs of Ancient Egypt. Courtesy of the Metropolitan Museum of Art, public domain. https://www.metmuseum.org/ art/collection/search/544450 Ancient Egyptian hieroglyphs carved on the wall of Hathor Temple, c. 2250 BCE. © Leemage/Corbis via Getty Images. Coffin of Pasherihoraawesheb, incense bearer in the temple of the god Khonsu at Thebes, containing the mummy of a female, 22nd dynasty. © The Trustees of the British Museum. Mural from the tomb of Queen Nefertari (r. 1279–1213 BCE) at Abu Simbel, Thebes, showing her playing senet, an ancient Egyptian board game. Courtesy of the Metropolitan Museum of Art, public domain. https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/ search/548355 Cleopatra, silver coin, minted in Syria, c. 36 BCE. © The Trustees of the British Museum. 8 Ancient Egypt Eman M. Elshaikh The Lexile® Framework for Reading Articles leveled by Newsela have been adjusted along several The Lexile® Framework for Reading evaluates reading ability and dimensions of text complexity including sentence structure, text complexity on the same developmental scale. Unlike other vocabulary and organization. The number followed by L indicates measurement systems, the Lexile Framework determines reading the Lexile measure of the article. For more information on Lexile ability based on actual assessments, rather than generalized age measures and how they correspond to grade levels: www.lexile. or grade levels. 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