Anatomy Sem 1.docx

Anatomy notes: WEEK 1-5: Exam review: 55 questions + 1 bonus question Chapter 1: Homeostasis Negative feedback vs positive feedback loop Anatomical positions Anatomical landmarks Anatomical/sectional planes Abdominopelvic quadrants Chapter 2: Ionic (transferring electrons) vs cov...

Anatomy notes: WEEK 1-5: Exam review: 55 questions + 1 bonus question Chapter 1: Homeostasis Negative feedback vs positive feedback loop Anatomical positions Anatomical landmarks Anatomical/sectional planes Abdominopelvic quadrants Chapter 2: Ionic (transferring electrons) vs covalent bonds (sharing electrons) Enzyme function Surface tension Properties of water (hydrophobic vs hydrophilic) Catabolism breaks them down into amino acids vs anablism builds them up Know electrolytes, need them to maintain homeostasis Inert = full outer electron, happy Chapter 3: 1 diagram of the cell (figure 3.2), will point to one thing from the cell Plasma membrane (know what it is and what it does) Osmosis (isotonic vs hypertonic vs hypotonic) Organelles (mitcochondria, ER - smooth and rough, ribosomes, mircovilli, etc) Understand transport processes (ex, diffusion, osmosis. Facilitate diffusion, active transport) Vesicular transport - Endocytosis vs Exocytosis vs Phagocytosis - how cells interact with environment Meiosis (reproduction) vs Mitosis (46 chromosomes) - know general idea of mitosis vs meiosis Chapter 4: Cover types of tissues Epithelium Types of connective tissue Types of cartilage Know membranes (mucous, serous, cutaneous, synovial) Know muscle tissue types (skeletal, cardiac, smooth) Voluntary vs involuntary Week 1: Biology is the study of life Common functions of all living things: Responsiveness Growth Reproduction Movement Metabolism Responsiveness: Responding to a change in the immediate environment Also called irritability Ex, moving away from a painful stimulus such as when removing your hand from a hot stove Capacity to make longer-term adjustments (ex, growing heavier coat of fur in winter) is called adaptability growth: An increase in size of organism accomplished by - growth of cells or addition of new cells Complex organisms grow mainly by increasing their number of cells Cellular differentiation - process of individual cells becoming specialized for particular functions Reproduction and movement: Reproduction - creation of new generations of the same type of organisms Movement - may be internal or external, Internal: transporting blood, food, or other material within the body External: moving through the environment Metabolism: Sum of all chemical operations occurring in the body Chemical reactions provide energy for the other common functions of living things (responsiveness, growth, reproduction, movement) More complex organisms require specialized structures and systems for metabolic processes Cells use materials absorbed from the environment for energy Nutrients from food Oxygen Metabolic processes: Respiration - absorption, transport, and use of oxygen by cells Digestion - breaking down complex foods into simpler compounds that can be absorbed Excretion - eliminating waste products generated by metabolic operations Homeostasis: a state of internal balance or a stable internal environment must be maintained in order to survive (malfunction of organ systems when homeostatic responses are overwhelmed results in illness or disease) Homeostatic regulation involves: A receptor that senses a particular change or stimulus A control center (integration center) that receives and processes information from the receptor An effector (cell or organ) that responds to command from the control center This response may oppose or enhance the stimulus Negative feedback: Most common form of homeostatic regulation Variations from trigger automatic response Response corrects situation back to normal range Ex, thermoregulation Alters relationship between heat loss and heat production Body temp is too high -> responses that lower body temp Body temp is too low -> responses that rairse body temp If body temp is high, control center in brain targets these effector: Sweat glands - increases secretion of sweat, body cools with evaporation of sweat Smooth muscle in blood vessels supplying skin - blood vessels dilate, incresing blood flow to body surface, heat is radiated from skin to environment Result - temp is reduced to normal range Positive feedback: Involved in regulation of potentially dangerous or stressful processes requiring rapid completions Blood clotting in response to blood loss Labor and delivery during childbirth Response reinforces or exaggerates original stimulus Results in escalating cycle or positive feedback loop Anatomical regions: Abdominopelvic quadrants - used to locate aches, pains and injuries RUQ Liver Gallbladder Large intestine Small intestine LUQ Stomach spleen RLQ Appendix LLQ Urinary bladder Anatomical directions: Anterior - ventral (front) Posterior - dorsal (back) Lateral (away from midline) Medial (towards midline) Proximal (toward attached based) Distal (away from attached based) Superficial (closest to body surface) Deep (farther from surface) Cranial - cephalic (toward head) Caudal (toward coccyx, tail) Anatomical planes: Frontal - coronal plane (parallel to long axis, front and back) Transverse - horizontal plane (perpendicular to long axis, top and bottom half) Sagittal plane (parallel to long axis, right and left) Midsagittal plane (plane passes throught the midline) Parasagittal plane (plane separate into unequal right and left sides) Body cavities of the trunk: True body cavities - closed, fluid filled spaces, lined by thin tissue layer called serous membranes, internal organs (viscera) are suspended within the cavities Protect internal organs from shocks Allow organs to change shape and size Two major regions: Thoracic cavity Abdominopelvic cavity Separated by the diaphragm (flat muscular sheet) Serous membranes: Produce watery fluid Moistens opposing surfaces Reduces friction Visceral layer (outer) Covers surfaces of visceral organs Parietal layer (inner) Lines inner surface of body wall or chamber Thoracic cavity: Each cavity lined by a serous membrane Contains three internal chambers One pericardial cavity (contains the heart) Two pleural cavities (one for each lung) Pericardial cavity: Hearts projects into the space, pericardial cavity Pericardial fluid between two layers reduce friction Lies within mediastinum Cavity is lined by the serous membrane called the pericardium Visceral pericardium is the layer covering the heart Parietal pericardium is the outer layer Pleural cavities: Each lung is found within its own pleural cavity Lined by serous membrane called the pleura Visceral pleura is the layer covering the outer surface of a lung Parietal pleura lines the edge of the mediastinum and the inner body wall Abdominopelvic cavity: Extends from the diaphragm to the pelvis Contains the peritoneal cavity Subdivided into: Abdominal cavity (superior portion) Pelvic cavity (inferior portion) Peritoneal cavity: Lined by serous membrane called peritoneum Visceral peritoneum covers enclosed organs Parietal peritoneum lines inner surface of body wall A few organs lie between peritoneal lining and dorsal wall of abdominal cavity A position called retroperitoneal Week 2: Matter: Anything that takes up space and has mass - mass is amount of matter an object contains Composed of substances called elements - elements cannot be changed or broken down into simpler substances. (ex, oxygen, carbon) Smallest stable unit of matter is an atom Atoms contain three major subatomic particles: Protons - have a positive electrical charge Neutrons - are neutral (uncharged) Electrons - have a negative electrical charge Subatomic particles: Electrons Much lighter than protons (1/1836 as massive) Orbit space around the nucleus at high speed (form electron cloud represented as electron shell) Protons and neutrons: Similar in size and mass Both found in the nucleus Atomic number The number of protons in an atom is the atomic number All atoms of an element contain same number of protons (ex, all helium atoms contain 2 protons) Isotopes: Atoms of an element with different numbers of neutrons in the nucleus are called isotopes Neutron number generally has no effect on chemical properties Unstable isotopes are radioactive Spontaneously emit subatomic particles Weak radiosotopes can be used in diagnostic procedures Distinguished by their mass number Total of protons and neutrons in the nucleus Atomic weight: The average mass of an element’s atoms is the atomic weight Incorporates: Mass of all subatomic particles Relative proportion of any isotopes Ex, atomic mass number = 1, atomic weight number = 1.0079 Types of ions: ions Atoms or molecules that have an electric charge Electrical charge comes from unequal numbers of protons and electrons cations Ions with a positive charge Formed when an atom loses electrons anions Ions with a negative charge Formed when an atom gains electrons Ionic bonds: Chemical bonds created by the electrical attraction between anions and cations Formed in a process called ionic bonding Ex, sodium atom donates an electron to a chlorine atom, resulting sodium ion (+1) and a chloride ion (-1), join to form ionic compound sodium chloride Covalent bonds: Formed by sharing of electrons between atoms Resulting bond is very strong Single covalent bond Sharing of one pair of electrons Double covalent bonds Sharing of two pairs of electrons Polar and nonpolar covalent bonds: Nonpolar covalent bonds Formed when electrons are shared equally Polar covalent bonds Formed by unequal sharing between atoms of different elements Form polar molecules One end (pole) has a slightly negative charge Other end (pole) has a slightly positive charge Ex, a water molecule Hydrogen bonds: Weak attractive force An attraction between: A slight positive charge on the hydrogen atom of one polar covalent bond and A slight negative charge on an oxygen or nitrogen atom of another polar covalent bone Ex, a bond between adjacent water molecules Surface tension: Hydrogen bonds Too weak to create molecules Can alter shapes of molecules or pull molecules closer together Attraction between water molecules forms surface tension Energy concepts: energy Capacity to perform work (movement of an object or change in physical structure of matter) Cannot be created or destroyed Cannot be converted from one form to another Some energy released as heat with each conversion Two types Kinetic energy - energy of motion Potential energy - stored energy Role of enzymes: Activation energy Amount of energy required to start a reaction Can come from changes in temp or pH Often these required changes would be deadly to cells Cells use enzymes to speed up reactions Enzymes lower activation energy Eliminates need for extreme temp or pH changes Categorized as catalysts Accelerate reaction without being permanently changed Exergonic/ Endergonic reactions: Endergonic reactions - absorb energy, more energy needed to begin than is released Exergonic reactions - release energy, amount released greeted than activation energy to start, relatively common in the body, generate heat to maintain body temp Properties of water: Water is the most importance substance in the body Three general properties of importance in the body Water is an essential reactant in the chemical reactions of living systems Water has a very high heat capacity Water is an excellent solvent (great for polar or ionic substances, which are hydrophylic; hydrophobic = will separate from water. E.g., oil) Enzyme function: Substrates interact to form a product Product released Enzyme free to catalyze another reaction Binding temporarily changes shape of enzyme Enzymes catalyze reactions that sustain life Substrates (reactants) bind to active site on enzyme Active site specific to substrate (like lock and key = specificity) Week 3: Structure of plasma membrane: Extremely thin (6nm - 10nm) Components Lipids Proteins Carbohydrates Transport processes: Diffusion - molecular movement of solutes, direction determined by relative contractions Osmosis - movement of water molecules toward solution containing a higher solute concentration across a permeable membrane Facilitated diffusion - carrier proteins transport solutes down a concentration gradient Active transport - carrier proteins transport solutes of any concentration gradients Endocytosis - formation of vesicles containing extracellular fluid or solid material Exocytosis - fusion of intracellular vesicles with plasma membrane to release fluids and/or solids from the cell Osmotic flow: Isotonic solution - no osmotic flow occurs, and the shape will appear normal, equal solutes within and out the cell Hypotonic solution - water flows into the cell, the swelling can continue until ruptures, higher solute into the cell then out Hypertonic solution - water moves out of the cell, the cell shrivels The nucleus: Usually the largest structure in a cell (mature RBCs have no nucleus and so they disintegrate in 3-4 months) Control center of the cell - dictates cell function and structure by controlling protein synthesis Nuclear envelope Double membrane that surrounds the nucleus Separates nucleoplasm from cytosol Nuclear pores Allow movement of substances into and out of the nucleus Microvilli: Small, finger - shaped projections of the plasma membrane on exposed surface of some cells Have internal core of mircofilaments for support Increase surface area of membrane Found on cells that are absorbing lots of materials from the extracellular fluid Cilia: Relatively long, slender extensions of plasma membrane Multiple motile cilia use ATP to move substances across cell surface Single, nonmotile primary cilium acts as signal sensor Flagella: Look like long cilia, but are used to move the cell through its environment Ribosomes: Manufacture proteins Consist of small and large subunits Two major types Free ribosomes that are spread throughout cytoplasm Fixed ribosomes attached to endoplasmic reticulum (ER) Endoplasmic Reticulum: Network of intracellular membranes Continuous with nuclear envelope Forms hollow tubes, flattened sheets, and chambers (cisternae) Four major functions: Synthesis of proteins, carbohydrates, and lipids Storage of materials, isolating them from the cytosol Transport of materials through the cell Detoxification of drugs or toxins Two types: Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER) Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) Mitochondria: Provide energy for the cell Number varies with cells energy demands Have a double membrane The outer surrounds the orangelle The inner is folded to form the cristae Cristae increase surface are exposed to fluid matrix Enzymes in this matrix catalyze energy-producing reactions Tumors: Tumor or neoplasm is mass produced by abnormal cell growth and division Benign tumors Usually and rarely life threatening Malignant tumors Spread from original location or primary tumor through a process called invasion May also spread to distant tissues forming secondary tumors Migration called metastasis Cellular differentiation: Cellular specialization due to gene activation or repression All somatic cells in the body have the same chromosomes and genes Yet develop to form a wide variety of cell types Differentiation Occurs when specific genes are turned off, leaving the cell with limited capabilities A collection of cells with specific functions is called a tissue Week 4: epithelial : external surface of body (skin, surface of organs) Protection for external body surfaces Classification: simple (one layer), stratified (mutli layer) Classification: squamous (flat cells), cubodial (cube cells), columnar (tall cells) 3 types of connective tissue: Connective tissue proper (Loose - more freedom of movement, dense - tight, stronger) Fluid connective tissues (blood - flows within cardiovasulcar system, lymph - flows with lymphatic system) Supporting connective tissues (cartilage - solid, rubbery matrix, bone - solid, crystalline matrix) Types of cartilage: Hyaline cartilage: found between tips of ribs, sternum, voice box, flexible support Elastic cartilage: found in ear, epiglottis, moveable, elastic like Fibrocartilage: pads within knee joint, between pubic bones of pelvis, resist compression, prevents bone - to - bone contact Mucous membrane: line passageways that opne to exterior (ex, digestive, respiratory, urinary, and reporductive tracts) Epithelial surfaces kept moist at all times (typically by mucous secretions) Type of epithelium varies Connective tissue layer composed of areolar tissue (layer called lamina propria) Serous membranes: Lines cavities not open to the outside Simple epithelim supported by areolar tissue Serous fluid reduces frictions between the 2 layers Pleura, pericaridum, peritoneum Consists of two layers Parietal: lining the inner surface of the cavity Visceral (serosa): covering the outer surface of organs in the body cavity Cutaneous membranes: The skin Covers the surface of the body Epithelium is stratified squamous epithelium Connective tissue consists of areolar tissue and underlying dense irregular connective tissue Thick and relatively waterproof, usually dry Synovial membranes: Line freely moving, articulating joint cavities Consists primarily of areolar connective tissue (incomplete layer of epithelial tissue) Protects the ends of bones Produce viscous synovial fluid (lubricates the joint and allows smooth movements) Muscle tissue: Specialized for contraction Slender individual cells called muscle fibers Contract due to interactions between filaments of proteins and myosin and actin Can be voluntarily controlled or primarily controlled by the nervous system (involuntary) 3 types of muscle tissue in the body Skeletal (moves/stabalizes along skeleton) Cardiac (heart) Smooth (in walls of blood vessels) Skeletal muscle tissue: Moves or stabilizes position of the skeleton Contains very large and long, multinucaleated cells New muscle fibers produced by divison of stem cells Myosin and actin proteins arranged in repeatings patterns, giving cells striated appearance Striated voluntary muscle Cardiac muscle tissue: Found only in the heart Typical cell smaller then skeleta muscle fiber One or two nuclei per cell Cells show branching and interconnections at intercalated discs (allows efficient coordinated contraction) Very limited ability to repair Striated involuntary muscle Smooth muscle tissue: small, slender cells tapered or narrowed at the ends Division and regeneration after injury Nonstraited involuntary muscle Found: In walls of blood vessels Around hollow organs such as the urinary bladder In the walls of the stomach, uterus, bladder, trachea, etc Nervous tissue: Also called nervous or nerve tissue Specialized for transmitting electrical impulses Most concentrated in brain and spinal cord Rapidly senses internal or external environment Processes information and controls reponses