Anatomy and Physiology 1 PDF

‭ omeostasis:‬‭This is the ability of the body to maintain a relatively stable internal‬ H ‭environment despite external changes. Maintaining homeostasis involves feedback‬ ‭loops, which are systems that monitor internal conditions and make adjustments as‬ ‭needed.‬ ‭Feedback Loops:‬‭There are t...

‭ omeostasis:‬‭This is the ability of the body to maintain a relatively stable internal‬ H ‭environment despite external changes. Maintaining homeostasis involves feedback‬ ‭loops, which are systems that monitor internal conditions and make adjustments as‬ ‭needed.‬ ‭Feedback Loops:‬‭There are two main types:‬ ‭‬ N ‭ egative Feedback:‬‭This is the most common type. It‬‭reverses a change to‬ ‭bring the body back to a set point. For example, if body temperature rises,‬ ‭negative feedback mechanisms activate to lower it back to the normal range.‬ ‭The steps in a feedback loop include a stimulus, receptor, control center,‬ ‭effector, and response. Examples include temperature regulation (both hot and‬ ‭cold) , blood sugar regulation, and blood pressure control.‬ ‭‬ ‭Positive Feedback:‬‭This amplifies a change, moving‬‭the body further away from‬ ‭the set point. This is less common but important for processes like childbirth and‬ ‭blood clotting. During labor, uterine contractions stimulate the release of‬ ‭oxytocin, which causes further contractions.‬ ‭ ormal Body Temperature:‬‭A healthy adult's normal‬‭body temperature is around‬ N ‭98.6°F (37°C).‬ ‭ cientific Method:‬‭The steps, in order, are observation,‬‭question, hypothesis,‬ S ‭prediction, experiment, and analysis.‬ ‭Critical Questions and Clinical Applications from the Previous Section:‬ I‭t's crucial to understand digestive tract anatomy to grasp how absorption, propulsion,‬ ‭and digestion work because the structure of the tract wall (its layers, tissues, and cells)‬ ‭directly dictates function. Referencing the patient's right and left, not your own, is‬ ‭essential for clear communication and to avoid errors during examinations and‬ ‭procedures. X-rays, CT scans, and MRI can visualize broken bones.‬ ‭Fundamental Composition of Matter:‬ ‭‬ A ‭ toms, Elements, and Subatomic Particles:‬‭An element is a pure substance‬ ‭made of only one type of atom. Atoms are the smallest unit of an element that‬ ‭retains its properties, comprised of subatomic particles: protons, neutrons, and‬ ‭electrons. Protons have a positive charge, neutrons have no charge (neutral), and‬  ‭ lectrons have a negative charge. Protons and neutrons are found in the nucleus‬ e ‭of the atom, while electrons orbit the nucleus in electron shells.‬ ‭‬ ‭Four Most Abundant Elements in the Body:‬‭Oxygen (O),‬‭carbon (C), hydrogen‬ ‭(H), and nitrogen (N)‬ ‭‬ ‭Valence Electrons and Stability:‬‭An atom's stability‬‭is determined by the‬ ‭number of electrons in its outermost shell (valence shell). Atoms are most stable‬ ‭when their valence shell is full.‬ ‭‬ ‭Chemical Bonds:‬ ‭○‬ ‭Ionic Bonds:‬‭Formed by the transfer of electrons from‬‭one atom to‬ ‭another, creating ions (charged atoms).‬ ‭○‬ ‭Covalent Bonds:‬‭Formed by sharing electrons between‬‭atoms. These can‬ ‭be polar (unequal sharing) or nonpolar (equal sharing).‬ ‭○‬ ‭Hydrogen Bonds:‬‭Weak attractions between a slightly‬‭positive hydrogen‬ ‭atom in one molecule and a slightly negative atom (usually oxygen or‬ ‭nitrogen) in another molecule.‬ ‭‬ ‭Energy and Chemical Reactions:‬‭Chemical reactions‬‭involve the breaking and‬ ‭forming of chemical bonds, with energy either released (exergonic reactions) or‬ ‭absorbed (endergonic reactions). Kinetic energy is the energy of motion, while‬ ‭potential energy is stored energy.‬ ‭‬ ‭Inorganic Compounds:‬‭Water, salts, acids, and bases‬‭are crucial for life. Water is‬ ‭essential due to its properties as a solvent, its role in temperature regulation, and‬ ‭its participation in many chemical reactions. pH measures a solution’s acidity or‬ ‭alkalinity, with acids having a pH below 7, bases having a pH above 7, and neutral‬ ‭solutions a pH of 7. Buffers help maintain pH stability.‬ ‭‬ ‭Organic Compounds:‬‭These are carbon-based molecules,‬‭including‬ ‭carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids. They are built from monomers‬ ‭(smaller units) that combine to form polymers (larger molecules). Each‬ ‭macromolecule plays a vital role in human functioning. (Further details on each‬ ‭class to follow in the next part of the guide.)‬ ‭Anatomical Position:‬‭The body is erect, feet slightly‬‭apart, palms facing forward,‬ ‭and thumbs pointing away from the body. This is the standard reference position‬ ‭used in anatomical descriptions.‬ ‭Regional Names:‬‭(Refer to an anatomical atlas for visual identification.)‬ ‭Examples include cephalic (head), cervical (neck), thoracic (chest), abdominal‬ ‭(abdomen), brachial (arm), antebrachial (forearm), carpal (wrist), femoral‬ ‭(thigh), crural (leg), pedal (foot).‬ ‭Directional Terms:‬ ‭‬ ‭Superior (cranial):‬‭Toward the head end or upper part‬‭of a structure or the‬ ‭body; above. Example: The head is superior to the abdomen.‬ ‭‬ ‭Inferior (caudal):‬‭Away from the head end or toward‬‭the lower part of a‬ ‭structure or the body; below. Example: The navel is inferior to the chin.‬ ‭‬ ‭Anterior (ventral):‬‭Toward or at the front of the‬‭body; in front of. Example:‬ ‭The sternum is anterior to the heart.‬ ‭‬ ‭Posterior (dorsal):‬‭Toward or at the back of the body;‬‭behind. Example: The‬ ‭heart is posterior to the sternum.‬ ‭‬ ‭Medial:‬‭Toward or at the midline of the body; on the‬‭inner side of. Example:‬ ‭The heart is medial to the arm.‬ ‭‬ ‭Lateral:‬‭Away from the midline of the body; on the‬‭outer side of. Example:‬ ‭The arms are lateral to the chest.‬ ‭‬ ‭Intermediate:‬‭Between a more medial and a more lateral‬‭structure.‬ ‭Example: The collarbone is intermediate between the breastbone and‬ ‭shoulder.‬ ‭‬ ‭Proximal:‬‭Closer to the origin of the body part or‬‭the point of attachment‬ ‭of a limb to the body trunk. Example: The elbow is proximal to the wrist.‬ ‭‬ ‭Distal:‬‭Farther from the origin of a body part or‬‭the point of attachment of‬ ‭a limb to the body trunk. Example: The knee is distal to the thigh.‬ ‭‬ ‭Superficial (external):‬‭Toward or at the body surface.‬‭Example: The skin is‬ ‭superficial to the skeletal muscles.‬ ‭‬ ‭Deep (internal):‬‭Away from the body surface; more‬‭internal. Example: The‬ ‭lungs are deep to the skin.‬ ‭‬ ‭Visceral:‬‭Pertaining to the covering of an internal‬‭organ. Example: The‬ ‭visceral pericardium covers the heart.‬ ‭‬ ‭Parietal:‬‭Pertaining to the outer wall of a body cavity. Example: The parietal‬ ‭pericardium lines the pericardial cavity.‬ ‭Body Planes:‬‭Imaginary flat surfaces that pass through‬‭the body. They are used‬ ‭to divide the body or an organ, making it easier to visualize and understand‬ ‭three-dimensional structure.‬ ‭‬ ‭Sagittal:‬‭A vertical plane that divides the body into‬‭right and left parts. A‬ ‭midsagittal plane lies exactly in the midline. A parasagittal plane is offset‬ ‭from the midline.‬ ‭‬ ‭Frontal (coronal):‬‭A vertical plane that divides the‬‭body into anterior and‬ ‭posterior parts.‬ ‭‬ ‭Transverse (horizontal):‬‭A horizontal plane that divides‬‭the body into‬ ‭superior and inferior parts.‬ ‭Body Cavities:‬‭Spaces within the body that protect,‬‭separate, and support‬ ‭internal organs.‬ ‭‬ ‭Dorsal Body Cavity:‬ ‭○‬ ‭Cranial cavity:‬‭Contains the brain.‬ ‭○‬ ‭Vertebral cavity:‬‭Contains the spinal cord.‬ ‭‬ ‭Ventral Body Cavity:‬ ‭○‬ ‭Thoracic cavity:‬‭Contains heart and lungs. Further‬‭subdivided into‬ ‭pleural cavities (lungs) and mediastinum (heart and other‬ ‭structures between the lungs.)‬ ‭○‬ ‭Abdominopelvic cavity:‬‭Further subdivided into abdominal‬‭cavity‬ ‭(digestive viscera) and pelvic cavity (urinary bladder, reproductive‬ ‭organs, rectum).‬ ‭Serous Membranes:‬‭Double-layered membranes that line‬‭the walls of the ventral‬ ‭body cavity and cover the organs within it. They secrete a lubricating fluid that‬ ‭reduces friction between the organs and the cavity walls.‬ ‭‬ ‭Pericardium:‬‭Around the heart.‬ ‭‬ ‭Pleura:‬‭Around the lungs.‬  ‭‬ ‭Peritoneum:‬‭Around the abdominopelvic organs.‬ ‭Anatomy and Physiology Study Guide‬ ‭Define: Anatomy and Physiology‬ ‭Anatomy is the study of the structure of body parts and their relationships to one‬ ‭another. Physiology is the study of the function of body parts; how they work to‬ ‭carry out life-sustaining activities.‬ ‭Properties of Life:‬ ‭‬ ‭Organization:‬‭Living things exhibit a high degree‬‭of structural organization.‬ ‭‬ ‭Movement:‬‭The ability to change position or location.‬‭This can be internal‬ ‭(transporting blood) or external (walking).‬ ‭‬ ‭Metabolism:‬‭All chemical reactions that occur within‬‭body cells. This‬ ‭includes catabolism (breaking down substances) and anabolism‬ ‭(synthesizing substances).‬ ‭‬ ‭Growth:‬‭Increase in size of a body part or of the‬‭organism.‬ ‭‬ ‭Differentiation:‬‭The development of a cell from an‬‭unspecialized to a‬ ‭specialized state.‬ ‭‬ ‭Responsiveness:‬‭The ability to sense and respond to‬‭stimuli.‬ ‭‬ ‭Regulation:‬‭The ability to maintain a stable internal‬‭environment‬ ‭(homeostasis).‬ ‭‬ ‭Reproduction:‬‭The ability to produce new cells for‬‭growth, repair, or to‬ ‭create a new organism.‬ ‭Levels of Organization:‬ ‭‬ ‭Chemical:‬‭Atoms combine to form molecules. (Example:‬‭Water molecule‬ ‭H2O)‬ ‭‬ ‭Cellular:‬‭Molecules combine to form cells, the basic structural and‬ ‭functional units of organisms. (Example: Muscle cell)‬ ‭‬ ‭Tissue:‬‭Groups of similar cells that have a common‬‭function. (Example:‬ ‭Muscle tissue)‬  ‭‬ ‭Organs:‬‭Structures composed of at least two different‬‭types of tissues.‬ ‭(Example: Heart)‬ ‭‬ ‭Organ Systems:‬‭Organs that work closely together to‬‭accomplish a‬ ‭common purpose. (Example: Cardiovascular system)‬ ‭‬ ‭Organismal:‬‭All the organ systems working together‬‭to maintain life and‬ ‭health. (Example: A human being)‬ ‭Organ Systems and Their Functions:‬ ‭‬ ‭Integumentary:‬‭Skin, hair, nails. Protection, temperature‬‭regulation.‬ ‭‬ ‭Skeletal:‬‭Bones, joints. Support, protection, movement.‬ ‭‬ ‭Muscular:‬‭Skeletal muscles. Movement, posture, heat‬‭production.‬ ‭‬ ‭Nervous:‬‭Brain, spinal cord, nerves. Control and coordination‬‭of body‬ ‭activities.‬ ‭‬ ‭Endocrine:‬‭Hormone-producing glands. Regulation of‬‭body functions‬ ‭through hormones.‬ ‭‬ ‭Cardiovascular:‬‭Heart, blood vessels. Transportation‬‭of blood, oxygen,‬ ‭nutrients, wastes.‬ ‭‬ ‭Lymphatic/Immune:‬‭Lymph nodes, lymphatic vessels,‬‭spleen. Immune‬ ‭defense, fluid balance.‬ ‭‬ ‭Respiratory:‬‭Lungs, airways. Gas exchange.‬ ‭‬ ‭Digestive:‬‭Stomach, intestines, liver, pancreas. Breakdown‬‭and absorption‬ ‭of nutrients.‬ ‭‬ ‭Urinary:‬‭Kidneys, bladder. Excretion of wastes, fluid and electrolyte‬ ‭balance.‬ ‭‬ ‭Reproductive:‬‭Testes, ovaries. Production of gametes, reproduction.‬ ‭Latin Roots:‬ ‭Given your previous request for Latin roots related to anatomy and‬ ‭physiology, here are some additional terms from the provided study‬ ‭guide, along with their meanings:‬  ‭‬ ‭Sagittal/Midsagittal/Parasagittal:‬‭These terms relate to the sagittal‬ ‭plane, which divides the body into left and right portions. Midsagittal refers‬ ‭to the plane directly down the midline, while parasagittal refers to planes‬ ‭parallel to the midline. The root "sagitta" is Latin for arrow.‬ ‭‬ ‭Coronal/Frontal:‬‭These terms refer to the plane that‬‭divides the body into‬ ‭front (anterior) and back (posterior) portions. "Corona" is Latin for crown or‬ ‭garland, possibly referencing the coronal suture of the skull.‬ ‭‬ ‭Transverse:‬‭This term describes the plane that divides‬‭the body into upper‬ ‭(superior) and lower (inferior) portions. It comes from the Latin‬ ‭"transversus," meaning across.‬ ‭‬ ‭Visceral/Parietal:‬‭These terms are used to describe‬‭membranes. Visceral‬ ‭refers to the membrane closest to the internal organs, while parietal refers‬ ‭to the membrane furthest from the organs, closer to the body wall.‬ ‭"Viscera" are the internal organs, and "paries" means wall.‬ ‭‬ ‭Medial/Lateral:‬‭These directional terms describe positions‬‭relative to the‬ ‭midline of the body. Medial refers to closer to the midline, while lateral‬ ‭refers to further away. "Medius" means middle and "latus" means side.‬ ‭‬ ‭Superior (Cranial)/Inferior (Caudal):‬‭These terms‬‭denote vertical position.‬ ‭Superior means above, while inferior means below. "Cranial" refers to the‬ ‭skull (cranium), and "caudal" refers to the tail. In humans, cranial is‬ ‭synonymous with superior and towards the head, while caudal, inferior,‬ ‭and towards the "tailbone" (coccyx) are similar.‬ ‭‬ ‭Anterior (Ventral)/Posterior (Dorsal):‬‭Anterior refers‬‭to the front of the‬ ‭body, and posterior refers to the back. "Ventral" refers to the belly, and‬ ‭"dorsal" refers to the back.‬ ‭‬ ‭Distal/Proximal:‬‭These terms describe relative positions of the limbs‬ ‭further from (distal) or closer to (proximal) the trunk or origin of a structure.‬ ‭These anatomical terms with Latin roots are fundamental for understanding and‬ ‭describing the structures and positions within the human body.‬ ‭Here are some Latin roots identified within the provided text, along with their‬ ‭definitions:‬ ‭‬ ‭sagittal (T0):‬‭Derived from‬‭sagitta‬‭, meaning "arrow."‬‭It refers to a plane or‬ ‭section that divides the body into left and right portions, like an arrow‬ ‭splitting a target.‬ ‭‬ ‭coronal (frontal) (T0):‬‭Derived from‬‭corona‬‭, meaning‬‭"crown" or "garland."‬ ‭It refers to a plane that divides the body into front (anterior) and back‬ ‭(posterior) portions. The term "frontal" is also used.‬ ‭‬ ‭transverse (T0):‬‭Derived from‬‭transversus‬‭, meaning‬‭"lying across." It refers‬ ‭to a plane that divides the body into superior (upper) and inferior (lower)‬ ‭portions.‬ ‭‬ ‭superior (cranial) (T0):‬‭Derived from‬‭superus‬‭, meaning‬‭"above," and‬ ‭cranium‬‭, meaning "skull." Refers to a position above‬‭or higher than another‬ ‭part of the body, particularly towards the head.‬ ‭‬ ‭inferior (caudal) (T0):‬‭Derived from‬‭inferus‬‭, meaning‬‭"below," and‬‭cauda‬‭,‬ ‭meaning "tail." Refers to a position below or lower than another part of the‬ ‭body.‬ ‭‬ ‭medial (T0):‬‭Derived from‬‭medialis‬‭, meaning "middle."‬‭Refers to a position‬ ‭closer to the midline of the body.‬ ‭‬ ‭lateral (T0):‬‭Derived from‬‭lateralis‬‭, meaning "side."‬‭Refers to a position‬ ‭farther from the midline of the body, towards the sides.‬ ‭‬ ‭anterior (ventral) (T0):‬‭Derived from‬‭anterior‬‭, meaning‬‭"before" and‬ ‭venter‬‭, meaning "belly." Refers to the front or belly-side‬‭of the body.‬ ‭‬ ‭posterior (dorsal) (T0):‬‭Derived from‬‭posterior‬‭, meaning‬‭"after," and‬ ‭dorsum‬‭, meaning "back." Refers to the back of the‬‭body.‬ ‭‬ ‭distal (T0):‬‭Derived from‬‭distare‬‭, meaning "to be distant." Refers to a point‬ ‭farther away from the point of attachment or origin of a body part.‬ ‭‬ ‭proximal (T0):‬‭Derived from‬‭proximus‬‭, meaning "nearest."‬‭Refers to a point‬ ‭closer to the point of attachment or origin of a body part.‬ ‭‬ ‭superficial (T0):‬‭Derived from‬‭superficialis‬‭, meaning "on the surface."‬ ‭Closer to or on the surface of the body.‬ ‭‬ ‭deep (T0):‬‭Although lacking a direct classical Latin origin, its meaning is‬ ‭contrasted with "superficial" and refers to structures further inside the body.‬ ‭Its usage aligns with anatomical Latin terminology.‬ ‭‬ ‭visceral (T0):‬‭Derived from‬‭viscera‬‭, meaning "internal‬‭organs." Related to,‬ ‭or located on or around the internal organs.‬ ‭‬ ‭parietal (T0):‬‭Derived from‬‭parietalis‬‭, meaning "wall."‬‭Refers to the wall of a‬ ‭body cavity or the lining membrane that covers its surface.‬