Anatomy Final PDF

Chapter 1 Introduction & Homeostasis Six Levels of Organization Homeostasis: the condition of balance and equilibrium 1. Chemical level: t wo or more atoms Anatomy: study of body structures 2. Cells: structural & functio...

Chapter 1 Introduction & Homeostasis Six Levels of Organization Homeostasis: the condition of balance and equilibrium 1. Chemical level: t wo or more atoms Anatomy: study of body structures 2. Cells: structural & functional units Physiology: study of how body structures function 3. Tissues: similarly specialized cells & special functions 4. Organs: t wo or more different tissues with specific 11 Body Systems functions integumentary cardiovascular 5. Systems: related organs with same function skeletal lymphatic 6. Human organism: collection of structural & muscular respiratory functional systems nervous digestive endocrine urinary Six Life Processes reproductive 1. Metabolism: break down & build up 2. Responsiveness: respond to change Noninvasive Techniques 3. Movement: motion inside body 1. Inspection: obser ve the body for changes 4. Growth: # of cells or size 2. Palpation: feel the body surface with hands eg. Pulse 5. Differentiation: replacement work, 3. Auscultation: listen to the body eg. Listen to heart/lungs specialized to non specialized 4. Percussion: taps the surface of body with fingers to hear echo 6. Reproduction: production of new cells Intracellular → fluid inside the body Feedback System Extracellular → fluid outside the body Stimulus: disruption that changes a controlled condition Intercellular → ECA filling narrow space bet ween cells Receptors: monitor changes and sends input Control center: evaluates input and generates output Signs: changes someone can see & measure Effector: receives output and produces a response Symptoms: not apparent to observer Negative feedback → reverses the original Superior → toward the head, upper part Positive feedback → enhances the original Inferior → away from the head, lower part Anterior → front of the body Planes Posterior → back of the body Coronal → divides front from Medial → the midline, divides right and left back Lateral → farther from the midline Transverse → divides top from Intermediate → bet ween t wo structures bottom Ipsilateral → same side as another structure eg. Right hand & right foot Median → divides left from Contralateral → opposite side as another structure eg. Right hand & left foot right Proximal → near the attachment of a limb to the trunk Paramedian → not on the Distal → farther from the attachment of a limb to the trunk midline Superficial → towards or on the surface Oblique → diagonal Deep → away from the surface Cavities Cranial → contain brain Vertebral → contain spinal cord Pleural → lungs Thoracic Pericardial → heart Mediastinum → all except lungs Abdominopelvic Abdominal → stomach, intestines etc. Pelvic → reproductive structures  Membrane Proteins Chapter 3 Cellular Organization 1. Integral: extends across whole lipid bilayer, amphipathic Plasma Membrane Lipid Bilayer 2. Peripheral: found inner or outer surface of → flexible yet sturdy → both polar and nonpolar parts membrane → grow & respond → polar point out Function... → wall → nonpolar points in ion channels (flow to get across) → consists of protein carriers (transport, change in shape) → lipid bilayer Selectively permeable: receptors (alter cell function) Function... barrier & selective gate, enzymes (break down) separate in & out permeable to small, non polar, linkers (movement, shape & stability) control in & out uncharged molecules identify markers (distinguish yours or not) identify signal Concentration Gradient → difference of a chemical bet ween one side of the plasma membrane and the other Electrical Gradient → set up when inside is more negatively charged & the outside is more positively charged Passive process → driven by concentration gradient Simple diffusion: nonpolar, diffuse across without help of transport, gas exchange Facilitated diffusion: too polar, integral membrane protein, nigh to low concentration, binds to specific transporter Osmosis: high concentration to low concentration, water moving Active transport → energy required to move Tonicity Transcription: nucleus, DNA → RNA Primary: pump across Isotonic: same concentration Translation: cytoplasm, RNA → protein membrane, move opposite Hypertonic: concentration is greater directions Hypotonic: lower concentration Apoptosis: organized cell death Secondary: energy in a H or Na Necrosis: cell death due to injury concentration gradient Cell Division → antiporter: opposite Mitosis & cytokinesis → somatic cell Atrophy → decrease in cell direction Meiosis & cytokinesis → germ cell size → symporter: same direction Mitosis... Hypertrophy → increase in nucleus of a cell divides cell size Vesicle transport: 2 sets of chromosomes Hyperplasia → increase in Endocytosis → materials move into a Meiosis... cell number cell Production of four haploid cells Metaplasia → reversible Receptor-mediated → selective uptake that are genetically different replacement of one mature of large molecules Cytokinesis... cell type by another less Phagocytosis → engulf worn-out cells, eventually the cytoplasm of the mature bacteria or viruses parent cell fully split Dysplasia → abnormal Pinocytosis → ingestion of pulls to opposite sides for cellular growth extracellular fluid functional cells Exocytosis → release their contents into the extracellular fluid Haploid → contains one set of chromosomes Transcytosis → combination of Diploid → contains t wo sets of chromosomes, endocytosis and exocytosis, moves one from each parent substances from one side to other side  Chapter 4 Tissue Organization Cell Junctions 1. Tight: fuse together, in epithelial Types of Tissues tissue, inhibit passage of 1. Epithelial → cover body surface, line organs & cavities substance 2. Connective → protect & support body & organs, stores energy as fat 2. Adhering: layer of protein to 3. Muscle → generate movement anchor cells together, move food 4. Ner vous → coordinate body activities 3. Desmosome: structural Basement Membrane arrangement, help with stability, Surfaces... t wo layers separate under tension Apical → top (goes to skin) basal lamina: thin, close to 4. Hemidesmosomes: resemble Lateral → sides epithelial desmosomes, anchor to basement Basal → bottom (attached to basement) reticular lamina: close to membrane underlying connective 5. Gap: allow cells in a tissue to Classification... rapidly communicate According to shape and thickness Layers Epithelial Membrane Simple → one layer Mucous: line cavities that open to exterior Pseudostratified → one layer that appears as several Serous: lines cavities that don't directly open to the Stratified → several layers exterior Shape Cutaneous: skin, covers outside of body Squamous → flat Synovial: line joint cavities Cuboidal → cube-like Columnar → rectangular Muscular Tissue Transitional → variable Skeletal muscle → long, striated fibers, voluntary control Connective Tissue Cardiac muscle → branched, striated Collagen fibers: very tough and resistant to stretching, allow fibers, involuntary control some flexibility. Found in bone, cartilage, tendons, and Smooth muscle → non-striated fibers, ligaments usually involuntary Elastic fibers: protein elastin, provide strength and stretching capacity. Found in skin, blood vessels, and lungs Nervous Tissue Reticular fibers: collagen and glycoproteins support the walls Neurons: convert into impulses, carry sensory of blood vessels, form a strong, supporting net work around & motor info. Dendrites to axons fat cells, nerve fibers, and skeletal and smooth muscle fibers Neuroglia: protect & support neurons Adipocytes: store energy in form of fat Leukocytes: white blood cells Excitable cells: produce action potential Extracellular matrix: located in space bet ween Loose: loosely arranged bet ween cells Dense: thicker and more densely packed, fewer cells than loose Tissue Repair Epithelial → replaced by the division Elastic: quite strong, can recoil back to its original shape Cartilage: dense net work of collagen fibers and elastic fibers of stem cells Connective → bone have continuous Bone: containing mineral salts and collagenous fibers and cells Blood: liquid extracellular matrix called blood plasma and RBC, capacity, cartilage replenishes less WBC, platelets readily Muscle → poor capacity for renewal Nervous → some perform limited repair, others cannot  Chapter 5 Integumentary System Epidermis → has 4 types of cells → consists of skin and its accessory structures Keratinocytes: produce the protein keratin, protect skin and tissues from heat & chemicals Layers Melanocytes: produce the pigment melanin, skin colour, absorbs Two parts... UV 1. Epidermis Intraepidermal macrophages: participate in immune responses 2. Dermis Tactile epithelial cells: sensory structure, function in the Superficial: is the epidermis and composed of sensation of touch epithelial tissue Thin skin → hairy, covers most of the body Deep: is the dermis and composed of connective Thick skin → hairless tissue Layers... Deep to Dermis: is the hypodermis Basale: new keratinocytes, deep Hypodermis: not part of skin, serves as fat Corneum: dead keratinocytes, superficial storage Epidermal ridges: Skin colour Dermis footprints & finger Melanin → produced by melanocytes in the stratum Papillary: superficial prints basale Reticular: deep portion 1. Pheomelanin: yellow to red 2. Eumelanin: brown to black Skin Glands 3. Freckles: accumulation of melanin in patches Sebaceous: oil / sebum, usually connected to hair Hemoglobin → a red pigment in red blood cells follicles Carotene → a yellow-orange pigment stored in the Sudoriferous: sweat, help regulate body temp and stratum cornem eg. Veggies eliminate waste Ceruminous: modified sweat glands producing cerumen Types of Hairs in the ear canal Lanugo → fine, nonpigmented downy hair, covers fetus Villus → short, fine, pale hair, peach fuzz Function of Skin Terminal hair... Thermoregulation: control body temperature → long, course, pigmented Blood Reservoir: house an extensive net work of → hair of the head, eyelashes, and eyebrows blood vessels → increase in response to androgens Protection: provide protection through barriers Hair colour: due to amount and type of melanin Cutaneous sensations: pressure, heat, pain Parts: shaft (above skin) & follicle (below) Excretion & absorption: elimination of waste Synthesis of vitamin D: enzymes in the liver Deep Wound Healing and kidneys 1. Inflammatory → a blood clot unites, swelling and redness, increase permeability of blood vessels Burns deliver phagocytes First degree → epidermis 2. Migratory → scab bridges the wound, damaged Second degree → epidermis & dermis blood vessels begin to grow Third degree → epidermis, dermis & hypodermis 3. Proliferative → events of migratory phase Rule of nine: used to estimate the surface area of an intensify adult affected by a burn 4. Maturation → scab sloughs off, epidermis Pressure ulcer restored to thickness, collagen more organized, Constant deficiency of blood blood vessels restored to normal Due to prolonged pressure against an object Prevented by change of position and movement  Structure Chapter 6 Bone Tissue Diaphysis → shaft (middle) 2 epiphyses → both ends of bone Functions at joints 1. Provide support 2 metaphyses → region bet ween 2. Protect internal organs diaphysis and epiphyses 3. Assist in movement Articular cartilage → covers both 4. Mineral homeostasis (calcium & phosphorus) ends 5. Blood cell production Periosteum → tissue surrounding 6. Stores triglycerides in adipose cells diaphysis Medullary cavity → hollow space Bone Cells within diaphysis 1. Osteoprogenitor cells Endosteum → thin membrane → bone stem cells able to differentiate into lining other cells 2. Osteoblasts Intramembranous: occurs in flat bones, connective tissue is → bone building cells replaced by bone 3. Osteocytes Endochondral: replaces cartilage with bone, for growth → mature bone cells 4. Osteoclasts Fracture Repair → remodel, car ve the bone,release calcium Reactive phase → early inflammation Reparative phase → fibrocartilaginous callus (make Calcium Homeostasis cartilage) & bony callus (turn into bone) Parathyroid → increase blood calcium ion levels Bone Remodeling phase → last step, finished remodeling Calcitriol → vitamin d. Increase calcium absorption Calcitonin → decrease blood calcium levels Chapter 7 Axial Skeleton Function → protects body's organs → support the storage and release of calcium Types of Bones Surface Markings Long → humerus Depressions/openings → allow passage of Short → carpal small tissue, form joints Flat → sternum Processes → outgrowths that form joint Irregular → vertebrae and attachment points Sesamoid → patella 80 bones 14 facial bones 8 cranial bones 3 ear bones 7 cervical 12 thoracic 5 lumbar 1 sacrum 1 coccyx 3 sternum 24 ribs  Chapter 8 Appendicular Skeleton 126 Bones Function → involved in body movements Structure → upper & lower limbs Homeostasis → plays an important role in the homeostasis of every system in the body → both directly and indirectly → ensures proper functioning of these systems Chapter 9 Joints Structural Classification Structure or Synovial Joint Fibrous Articular capsule → surrounds synovial joint → little to no movement Ligaments → bone to bone → dense irregular connective tissue Articular discs → modify shape, maintain stability → eg. Skull Bursae → cushion movement Cartilaginous Tendon sheath → wrap around for protection → hyaline or fibrous cartilage → little to no movement Gliding movement: flat bone surfaces move back-and-forth and side-to-side → eg. Pelvis Synovial Factors Affecting Joints → freely movable 1. Structure and shape of articulating bones → articular cavity 2. Strength and tautness of joint ligaments → eg. Knee 3. Arrangement and tension of muscles 4. Contact of soft parts Synovial Joint Classification 5. Hormones Plane 6. Disuse → articulated surfaces flat or slightly curved → back-and-forth, side-to-sides, rotation Arthroplasty → eg. Carpal, tarsal, vertebrocostal joints → joint replacement surgery can be performed Hinge → hip replacement: both acetabulum and head → convex surfaces fits into concave surfaces of femur → flexion, extension → knee replacement: resurfacing cartilage can → eg. Knee, elbow, phalanges be partial or total Ball-and-socket → ball like surface fits into a cup like depression Arthritis → Swollen, stiff and painful joints → flexion, extension, abduction, adduction, 1. Osteoarthritis: wear-and-tear, deterioration of rotation articular cartilage → eg. Shoulder, hip 2. Rheumatoid arthritis: autoimmune disease, attacks your own joints  Chapter 10 Muscular Tissue Skeletal Smooth Cardiac Sarcomere → voluntary → involuntary → involuntary Z discs: separate one sarcomere from the next → movement → various → pumps blood A band: dark, entire length of thick, where thin → on bones → organs → heart overlap thick → striated → non striated → one nucleus I band: thin filaments, no thick → multinucleus → one nucleus → striated H zone: center of A band, thick filaments, no thin M line: region in center of H zone, hold thick Skeletal Muscle Anatomy together Fascicle: bundles of muscle fibers Myofibril: contractile elements Sarcolemma: plasma membrane of muscle cell Thin filament: actin Thick filament: myosin Sarcomere: functional unit of myofibril Myoglobin: oxygen storage Sarcoplasmic reticulum: encircles each myofibril, calcium storage T-tubules: quickly spread action potential Contractile → myosin & actin Sliding Filament → generate force 1. Myosin cross bridges pull on actin filaments to head to the H zone Regulatory 2. Z discs come towards, sarcomere becomes shorter, filaments don't → troponin & tropomyosin change length → switch contraction on & off 3. Shortening of entire muscle Structural → titin & dystrophin Contraction Cycle.. → keep filaments in alignment ATP hydrolysis, attachment of myosin to actin, power stroke, detachment Excitation-contraction coupling: connects the events of a muscle action potential with the sliding filament mechanism Neuromuscular junction: action potential arises at the NMJ, the synapse bet ween a somatic motor neuron and a skeletal muscle fiber Spasm: sudden involuntary Muscle Metabolism contraction Creative phosphate: max burst is 15 seconds Cramp: painful spasmodic contraction Anaerobic Glycolysis: max muscle contraction energy for 2 minutes Tic: t witching made involuntary by Cellular Respiration: under aerobic conditions muscles that are normally voluntary Tremor: rhythmic, involuntary, Muscle Fatigue purposeless contraction → inability of a muscle to maintain force of contraction after prolonged activity Oxygen Consumption → recovery oxygen uptake, replenishing, converting, reloading Muscle tension: strength depends of now many motor units are activated Muscle tone: alternating involuntary activation Hypotonia: absent or decreased muscle tone Hypertonia: increased muscle tone  Compartment syndrome Chapter 11 Muscular System → pressure constricts the structure resulting in damaged Named by... Origin: attachment to the stationary bone blood vessels → appearance Insertion: attachment to the moveable bone RMA → location → positions of origin & → # of origins Agonist: prime mover insertion are switched → size Antagonist: produce opposite action → direction of fibers Synergist: helping prime mover move for efficiently → origin and insertion Fixators: stabilize origin of the prime mover → muscle action Mandible muscles... Fascicles Masseter: close mouth Parallel: terminate at either end in flat tendons Temporalis: close & retract jaw Fusiform: diameter is less than at belly, terminate in flat tendons Medial pterygoid: side to side, Circular: enclose an orifice close & protract jaw Triangular: spread over broad area, triangular appearance Lateral pterygoid: open & Pennate protract jaw, side to side Unipennate: one side Bipennate: both sides Eye muscles... Multipennate: obliquely from many directions Superior rectus: move superior, rotate medial Inferior rectus: move inferior, rotate lateral Face muscles... Neck muscles... Lateral rectus: move lateral Orbicularis oris: shapes lips Sternocleidomastoid: extend Medial rectus: move medial Buccinator: chewing & rotate head Superior oblique: move inferior, rotate medial Platysma: pouting Inferior oblique: move superior, rotate lateral Orbicularis oculi: closes eyes Girdle muscles... Butt muscles... Abdomen muscles... Subclavius: move clavicle Gluteus maximus: Internal: compress abdomen & Serratus anterior: abducts scapula & rotate up extend & laterally flex vertebral column Trapezius: rotate up & stabilize scapula rotate thigh External: compress abdomen & Pectoralis minor: abducts scapula & rotate down Gluteus medius: flex vertebral column Levator scapulae: elevate scapula & rotate down abduct & medially Rectus: compress abdomen & Rhomboid major: elevate & adducts scapula, rotate down rotate thigh flex vertebral column Rhomboid minor: elevate & adducts scapula, rotate down Gluteus minimus: Transverse: compress abdomen abduct & medially Thigh muscles... rotate thigh Quadratus lumborum: flex Adductor longus: adducts, flexes, rotates thigh Quadriceps femoris: vertebral column & elevate hip Adductor brevis: adducts, flexes, rotates thigh laterally rotate & Shoulder muscles... Adductor magnus: adducts, flexes, extends & rotates thigh stabilize Pectoralis major: adduct, flex & Pectineus: flexes & adducts thigh medially rotate arm Gracilis: adduct, medially rotate & flex thigh Leg muscles... Latissimus dorsi: extend, Tibias anterior: dorsiflexion & adduct & medially rotate arm Hamstrings... inverts foot Deltoid: abduct arm, extend & Flexes leg @knee and extends thigh @hip Gastrocnemius: plantar flexion laterally rotate arm & flexes leg Subscapularis: medically rotate Quadriceps femoris... Soleus: plantar flexion arm Rectus femoris, vastus x3: extend leg @knee Flexor digitorum: plantar Sartorius: weakly flex, adduct and rotate thigh flexion & flex toes 2-5  Chapter 12 Ner vous Tissue The central nervous system consists of... 1. Brain The peripheral nervous system consists of... 2. Spinal cord 1. Cranial ner ves 2. Spinal ner ves Sensory system: Consists of a variety of different receptors as well as sensory neurons. Afferent Motor system: conduct nerve impulses from the CNS to muscles and You have control over it glands. Efferent 7 Somatic: voluntary, neurons that conduct impulses from cutaneous and special sense receptors. CNS to skeletal muscle tissue Autonomic: involuntary, contains sensory neurons from visceral organs Autopilot, you aren't and motor neurons that convey impulses going to think about it 2 Enteric: neurons in enteric plexuses that extend the length of the GI tract Sympathetic: FFF Parasympathetic: rest & Functions... digest Sensory → sense changes Enteric: control digestion Motor → respond 8 initiate action Neuroglia in CNS PNS Integrative → analyze, store, make decisions 1. Astrocytes → structural support 1. Schwann and maintain chemical environment cells → form 1. Sensory neurons → carry stimulus from 2. Oligodendrocytes → form myelin myelin sheath sensory receptors to CNS sheath 2. Satellite 2. Motor neurons → carry action potential from 3. Microglial cells → act as cells → CNS to effectors (muscles or glands) phagocytes structural 3. Interneurons → located bet ween sensory and 4. Ependymal cells → produce support motor neurons, process sensory information and cerebrospinal fluid elicit a response by activating motor neurons White matter → primarily of myelinated axons Collections of Nervous Tissue Grey matter → contains neuronal cell bodies, Ganglion: collection of neuronal cell bodies in dendrites, axon terminals, unmyelinated axons and PNS, closely associated with cranial and spinal neuroglia ner ves Nucleus: collection of neuronal cell bodies in Excitable cells communicate with each other through... CNS Action potential → communication over short and long Ner ves: bundle of axons in the PNS distances Tracts: bundles of axons in the CNS Graded potential → communication over short distances only Channels Leak channels: alternate bet ween open and Continuous conduction: step-by-step depolarization of closed positions each adjacent area of the plasma membrane Ligand-gated channels: respond to chemical Saltatory conduction: nerve impulse conduction, stimuli (binds to receptor) impulse jumps from node-to-node along myelinated axon Mechanically-gated channels: respond to mechanical vibration, touch, pressure Ionotropic receptors: neurotransmitter binding site and ion Voltage-gated channels: respond to direct channels, simple changes in membrane potential Metabotropic receptors: neurotransmitter binding site coupled to a separate ion channel by a G protein  Meninges Chapter 13 Spinal Cord & Nerves Dura mater most superficial Functions of Spinal Cord thick strong layer 1. Processes reflexes dense irregular connective tissue 2. Integrates excitatory postsynaptic potentials continuous epineurium 3. Inhibitory postsynaptic potentials outer covering of spinal and cranial nerves 4. Conducts sensory impulses to the brain and motor Arachnoid mater impulses to effectors middle layer thin avascular covering Protection loosely arranged collagen and elastic fibers bone (vertebrae) Pia mater connective tissue (meninges) innermost meningeal fluid (CSF) transparent layer, adheres to spinal cord and brain surface Spinal Ner ves within has blood vessels that supply oxygen and 8 pairs of cervical nutrients to spinal cord 12 thoracic nerve 5 lumbar nerves Connective tissue surrounding 5 sacral nerves → spinal nerve axons are grouped within connective tissue sheathes 1 coccygeal ner ve → fiber is a single axon: within an endoneurium → fascicle is a handle of fibers: within a perineurium Plexuses → nerve is a bundle of fascicles: within an epineurium Net work of nerves is called plexuses Principal plexuses are... 1. Cervical → supplies the skin, muscles of head, neck, upper shoulder, cranial nerves and supplies the diaphragm 2. Brachial → supply for upper extremities and neck and shoulder muscles 3. Lumbar → supplies the anterolateral abdominal wall, external genitals and part of lower extremities 4. Sacral → supplies the buttocks, perineum and part of lower extremities 5. Coccygeal → sciatic nerve (pain from buttock down the back of leg) T2-T12 do not form plexuses and are called intercostal nerves Ipsilateral: sensory ner ve impulses enter the spinal cord on the same side from which the motor nerve impulses leave it Contralateral: sensory nerve impulses enter the spinal cord on one side and motor nerve impulses leave on the opposite side Monosynaptic: involves one sensory neuron and one motor neuron and has only one synapse in the CNS Polysynaptic: involves more than t wo types of neurons and more than one CNS synapse Reciprocal innovation: neural circuit simultaneously cause contraction of one muscle and relaxation of its antagonists Stretch reflex: cause contraction of muscles that have been stretched Tendon reflex: control muscle tension by causing relaxation when force becomes extreme Flexor: moves a limb to avoid injury or pain Crossed extensor: maintain balance during flexor reflex  Chapter 14 Brain & Cranial Nerves Blood Brain Barrier Protection Blood Flow & Supply → protect brain from harmful → cranial bones → blood flows to the brain via vertebral and carotid substances & pathogen → meninges arteries → CSF → blood flows back to the heart via the jugular veins Brain Stem Cerebrospinal Fluid is composed of... → protects brain and spinal cord against chemical and physical injuries 1. Medulla oblongata → carries substances from the blood to neurons and neuroglia 2. Pons → there are 4 CSF filled cavities called ventricles (2 lateral, 1 third, 1 forth) 3. Midbrain Medulla Oblongata → pyramids: formed by large corticospinal tracts Pons (explains each side of the brain controls voluntary → relays nerve impulses related to voluntary movements on the opposite side) skeletal muscle movements → inferior olivary neurons: relay impulses from → contains the pontine respiratory group (helps proprioceptors to the cerebellum (provides instructions control respiration) that the cerebellum uses to make adjustments to muscle activity) Midbrain Function Structure → regulation of heart rate 1. Cerebral peduncles → regulation of respiratory rate → conduct nerve impulses from motor areas in the → vasoconstriction cerebral cortex to the spinal cord, medulla and pons → swallowing, coughing, vomiting, sneezing and 2. Substantial nigra hiccupping → releases dopamine: control subconscious muscle activities Reticular formation: awake from sleep 3. Red nuclei Cerebellum: coordinate movement, balance → help control muscular movement, rich blood supply Diencephalon: Function Thalamus → awareness 8 knowledge → conveys motor impulses Hypothalamus → regulation of homeostasis, → sends sensory impulses behaviour → regulates auditory and visual reflexes Epithalamus → secrete melatonin Cerebrum seat of intelligence Olfactory (|) → entirely sensory, conducts impulses for sense of smell Vagus (X) → mixed, widely Optic (||) → entirely sensory, conducts impulses for vision distributed in the head, neck, Oculomotor (|||) → motor nerve, control muscles that move the eyeballs thorax, and abdomen. Trochlear (|V) → motor nerves, control muscles that move the eyeballs parasympathetic motor control Trigeminal (V) → mixed, sensory for touch, pain, thermal sensations. Accessory (X|) → motor nerve, raise motor control chewing movements shoulders and turn head Abdomens (V|) → motor, control muscles that move the eyeballs Hypoglossal (X||) → motor nerve, Facial (V||) → mixed, sensory for taste, touch, pain, thermal sensations. muscles of the tongue motor of facial expression, tears, saliva Vestibulocochlear (V|||) → sensory ner ve, carries impulses for equilibrium and hearing Glossopharyngeal (|X) → mixed, sensation of taste, control of swallowing muscles  Chapter 15 Autonomic Nervous System Autonomic NS Somatic NS → sympathetic and → from interceptors, some from → from somatic and special parasympathetic preganglionic senses senses neurons release acetylcholine, → involuntary control → voluntary control sympathetic postganglionic → t wo-neuron pathway → one-neuron pathway release norepinephrine, → smooth muscle, cardiac muscle → all motor neurons release parasympathetic postganglionic and glands are effectors only acetylcholine neurons release acetylcholine → contraction/relaxation → skeletal muscles are the (smooth), increase/decrease rate effectors Cholinergic (cardiac), increase/decrease → contraction of skeletal → release acetylcholine secretion (glands) muscles → all sympathetic and parasympathetic preganglion, all Major Autonomic Plexus Nicotinic: Activation causes excitation parasympathetic postganglionic → cardiac of postsynaptic cell neurons → pulmonary Muscarinic: Activation causes either Adrenergic → celiac excitation or inhibition → release norepinephrine and → hypogastric include most sympathetic postganglion neurons Agonist: is a substance that binds to and activates a receptor, mimicking → alpha and beta receptors the effect of a natural neurotransmitter or hormone → effects triggered by Antagonist: is a substance that binds to and blocks a receptor, adrenergic typically are longer preventing a natural neurotransmitter or hormone from exerting its lasting effect Autonomic tone: balance by hypothalamus Sympathetic Response → prepare the body for emergency situations... exercise emergency excitement embarrassment → are longer-lasting and more widespread → air way, pupils, HR, BP Parasympathetic Response → periods of rest and relaxation → last for a shorter time → less widespread → decreases  Chapter 16 Pain & Sensation Sensation: conscious or subconscious awareness of changes in environment Pain sensations... Sensory: conduct nerve impulses toward the brain Superficial somatic pain: from skin receptors Pathway of sensation... Deep somatic pain: from 1. Stimulation of the sensory receptor Nociceptors: receptors for receptors in muscles, joints and 2. Transduction of the stimulus pain tendons 3. Generation of the nerve impulses Visceral pain: stimulation of pain 4. Integration of sensory input sensors in visceral organs Types of pain Pain threshold: Smallest intensity of a painful Fast pain stimulus, all individuals have the same pain threshold → acute, sharp or pricking Pain tolerance: greatest intensity of painful → perceived within 0.1 seconds stimulation that a person is able to tolerate, varies Slow pain → chronic, burning, aching or throbbing Referred pain: pain from one area of the body → perceived a second or more after stimulus causing pain in an unrelated area Chapter 17 Ears & Eyes Visual Pathway Cornea, anterior, pupil, posterior, lens, vitreous, retina Accessory Structures Auditory Pathway 1. Eyelids → protect eyes from light & foreign objects Sound wave, tympanic, vibration in ossicles, pushing, and spread lubricating secretions fluid pressure, pressure 2. Eyelashes /brows → protect eye from foreign objects 3. Lacrimal apparatus → produce & drain tears External ear: collect sound wave, pass them inward 4. Extrinsic muscles → move the eye Middle ear: airfilled cavity in temporal bone Inner ear: complicated series of canals Fibrous tunic: outer layer with cornea & sclera Labyrinth: contains vestibule, semicircular, cochlea Vascular tunic: middle layer Semicircular canals: receptors for equilibrium Sclera: white of the eye Vestibule: receptor for equilibrium Cornea: admits & bends light Cochlea: receptor for hearing Iris: coloured part, regulates amount of light that enters Pupil: Equilibrium: balance & assist with maintenance of the Lens: fine tunes focusing for clear vision body's position relative to gravity Retina: inner layer, receives light Macula: exact center of posterior portion Emmetropic → correctly and focus a clear image Rods: specialized for black and white Myopia → nearsightedness Cones: specializes in colour & bright vision Hyperopia → farsightedness Fovea: area of sharpest vision Astigmatism → Blurred or distorted vision Anterior segment: aqueous humor, has chambers Convergence → the eyeballs move medially Anterior chamber: behind cornea in front of iris Tinnitus → ringing in ear Posterior chamber: behind iris in front of lens Cataracts → loss of transparency Posterior segment: vitreous humor Glaucoma → nigh pressure  Chapter 18 Endocrine System Exocrine: secrete into ducts, none Ner vous System Control Endocrine System Control are hormones. Include sweat, oil, → neurotransmitter released → delivered to tissues mucous, digestive glands → close to release site → far from release site Endocrine: secrete hormones into → muscle cells, glands and other neurons → cells throughout the body fluid, carried to target cells. → super fast → takes seconds-hours-days Include pituitary, thyroid, → brief → longer parathyroid, suprarenal, pineal Hormone Activity Interaction depends on... Circulating: travels in the blood → concentration Most hormone regulation is Local: act locally → abundance achieved by negative feedback Paracrine's: act on neighbouring cell → influences Autocrine's: act on same cell Effects... Permissive: requires recent exposure to 2nd Lipid-soluble Synergistic: more effective when 2nd is present → steroids, thyroid hormones, nitric oxide Antagonistic: oppose the action of others → act as local hormone → bind to transport protein to be carried through the blood Control of Secretion → activate, alter, result → short bursts when needed Water-soluble → regulation maintained by homeostasis → amine, peptide, protein, eicosanoids → prevent over/under production → circulate in plasma in an con attached form → alter, bind, set, release Thyroid Gland Follicular: stimulated by TSH, produce T4 & T3 Hypothalamus & Pituitary Gland Parafollicular: produce calcitonin (lowers the Hypothalamus: releasing and inhibiting hormones blood level of calcium) Anterior lobe... → growth hormone (GH): promote growth of body tissues Parathyroid Glands → thyroid-stimulating (TSH): secretion of thyroid hormones → regulate homeostasis of → follicle-stimulating (FSH): female - ovarian secretion. male -sperm production calcium & phosphate → luteinizing (LH): female-ovulation, sex hormones. male- sex hormones Regulated by... → prolactin (PRL): milk production by mammary glands → calcitonin → adrenocorticotropic (ACTH): secretion of cortisol → PTH → melanocyte-stimulating (MSH): darkening of skin → calcitriol Posterior lobe... → oxytocin: induce child birth. Uterus - contractions. Breasts - milk production → antidiuretic: water reabsorption by kidneys. decreased ADH, increased urine Suprarenal Glands Pancreatic Islets: enzyme producing exocrine Cortex... cells. Regulate blood glucose levels → mineralocorticoids: regulate mineral homeostasis → glucocorticoids: glucose homeostasis Ovaries & testes: produce sex hormones, development → weak androgens: hormones with masculinizing effects of characteristics Medulla... → epinephrine Pineal Gland: secrete melatonin → norepinephrine Thymus: secrete immunity related hormones  Chapter 19 Cardiovascular System Lifespan RBC → 120 days Components of Blood Functions WBC → usually a few hours or days some → 55% plasma 1. Transportation may last several months or years → 45% formed elements (RBC, WBC, 2. Regulation Platelets → 5-9 days platelets) 3. Protection Plasma Hematopoiesis: creation of blood cells → 91.5% water Characteristics -poietin: means increase → 8.5% solutes (proteins, enzymes, 38°C hormones etc.) 7.35 - 7.45 pH Whole blood: all plasma & formed elements 5-6 L for male Plasma: watery liquid matrix 4-5 L for female Serum: blood plasma minus clotting proteins Red Blood Cells → biconcave discs Transplants → hemoglobin (carry 02 to cells & CO2 to lungs) Bone marrow: treat types of anemia, leukemia, and many → dead cells removed by circulation other blood disorders → erythrocytes Stem cell transplants are much more common Reticulocytes: immature RBC Ferritin: iron storage protein Hemostasis Process Bilirubin: non-iron portion 1. Vascular spasm: walls contract to stop bleeding 2. Platelet plug formation: clumping of platelets around White Blood Cells damage → leukocytes 3. Blood clot formation: insoluble protein fibers are trapped → unique → elevation indicates infection Fibrinolysis: break up fibrin Granular: neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils Agranular: lymphocytes, monocytes, macrophages Disorders... Leukopenia: low WBC count Anemia: the oxygen carrying capaci Neutrophils: bacterial infection, first responder, not specific of the blood is reduced Lymphocytes: viral infections, specific adaptive immunity, finds virus hiding Sickle cell disease: genetic anemia Monocytes: chronic diseases Hemophilia: inherited deficiency of Eosinophils: allergic reactions clotting Basophils: allergic reactions Acute leukemia: uncontrolled produc and accumulation of immature Platelets leukocytes Megakaryoblasts: transform into megakaryocutes, split into fragments Chronic leukemia: accumulation of (platelets) mature leukocytes → help stop blood loss → promote clotting Blood Groups and Types A → A antigen present, anti-b antibody B → B antigen present, anti-a antibody AB → A & B antigen present, neither antibody O → absence of the antigen, both anti-a and anti-b antibodies Rh-negative individuals can make anti-Rh if exposed to Rh- positive erythrocytes