ANATOMY NOTES PDF

**CLASSIFICATION OF JOINTS (ARTICULATIONS): FUNCTIONS** **Synarthrosis (No movement):** - The bony edges are quite close together and may even interlock. They are located where movement between bones must be prevented Amphiarthrosis (little movement): - They permit more movement than syn...

**CLASSIFICATION OF JOINTS (ARTICULATIONS): FUNCTIONS** **Synarthrosis (No movement):** - The bony edges are quite close together and may even interlock. They are located where movement between bones must be prevented Amphiarthrosis (little movement): - They permit more movement than synarthroses but is much stronger than a freely moveable joint. These articulating bones are connected by collagen fibres or cartilage. Diarthrosis (free movement) - A form of joint articulation (Synovial joint) that permits free movement, as at the shoulder. **ACCESSORY STRUCTURES** Fat pads: - Localised masses of adipose tissue covered by a layer of synovial membrane. They protect the articular cartilage and act as a packing material for the joint. Ligaments: - Dense bands of connective tissue fibers that attach one bone to another. Accessory ligaments support, strengthen, and reinfornc synovial joints Tendons: - Collagen bands that connect a skeletal muscle to an element of the skeleton. Tendons passing across or around a joint may limit the joints range of motion and provide mechanical support for it. Bursae - Small pockets filled with synovial fluid that cushion adjacent structures and reduce friction. **TYPES OF JOINTS** Gliding joints - Articular joint surfaces are essentially flat. - They allow only gliding movements Condylar joints: - Oval articular surface within a depression. They allow all angular motions (in two planes) Hinge joints: - The joint surfaces are arranged to allow only back and forth movements in a single plane. Saddle joints - Each articular surface is concave along one axis ad convex along the other. This arrangement permits angular movement, including circumduction, but prevents rotation. Pivot joints: - The axis of a convex articular surface I parallel with the longitudinal axis of the bone. Ball and socket joints - The round end of one bone rests within a cup-shaped depression in another. They allow freedom of movement in all directions.     **MOVEMENT** Names: Flexion: - Movement in the anterior plane that decreases angle Extension - Movement in anterior plane that increases angle Generally opposite motion - Hyperextension goes further Abduction - Movement away from midline Adduction - Movement toward midline     **IMAGING REFERRAL PATHS** Conventional radiographs: - MASL trauma/Fractures - MSK dislocations - Chest X-rays Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) - ACL and acute meniscal tears Computed Tomography - MSK Trauma/Fractures - Suspected osteophytes - Stroke - GIT obstructions Ultrasound (Soft Tissue)\ - MSK tears e.g. tendons (Achilles) and ligaments.   **REGIONAL AND FUNCTIONAL ANATOMY OF THE PECTORAL AND SHOULDER**   **Regions Of The Upper Limb** - Shoulder region \> Subregion: Deltoid - Axilla - Brachia region (Anterior and Posterior) - Cubital region - Anterior cubital region (cubital fossa) - Posterior cubital region (Olecranon region) - Antebrachial region - Carpal region - Radial foveola: anatomical snuffbox   STERNOCLAVICULAR JOINT -   - Clavicle Articular disc Interclavicula ligament Costoclavicular ligament Joint capsule Costal cartila I Manubrium of sternum Manubriosternal joint Costoclavicular ligament Anterior sternoclavicular ligament Radiate sternocostal ligament Costal cartilage Il - A synovial joint (saddle) with strong joint capsule and strong ligaments location Includes - Clavicle - Manubrium of the sternum Articular surfaces are covered with fibrocartilaginous articular disc. **4 ligaments:** 1. Anteriorly Sternoclavicular ligament 2. Posteriorly sternoclavicular ligament 3. Interclavicular ligament 4. Costoclavicular ligament   **ACROMIOCLAVICULAR JOINT** A place type synovial joint. - Very Strong Structure - Located here the lateral end of the clavicle articulates with the acromion of the scapula. Ligaments: 1. Intrinsic: Acromioclavicular ligament 2. Extrinsic: Conoid ligament 3. Extrinsic: Trapezoid ligament Conoid and trapezoid ligaments are known as the coracoclavicular ligament - This joint allows axial rotation and anteroposterior movement   **GLENOHUMERAL JOINT (SHOULDER JOINT)** - It is a **ball and socket joint** between **glenoid cavity of the scapula** and the **head of the humerus.** Bursae: - Subacromial and subscapular Ligaments: - Glenohumeral, coracohumeral, transverse **SHOULDER MOVEMENT (WIDE RANGE)** - Extension - Flexion - Abduction - The first 0-15 degrees of abduction is produced by the supraspinatus. - The middle fibres of the deltoid are responsible for the next 14-90 degrees - Past 90 degrees, the scapula needs to be rotated to achieve abduction - that is carried out by the trapezius and the serratus anterior. - Adduction - Internal rotation - External rotation.   MUSCLES OF PECTORAL REGION - Subclavius - Pectoralis major and minor - Serratus anterior -      **PECTORALIS MAJOR** - Most superficial muscle of pectoral region. **Attachments:** - Clavicular head - originates from the anterior surface of the medial clavicle. - Sternocostal head - originates from the anterior surface of the sternum, the superior six costal cartilages and the aponeurosis of the external oblique muscle. **Distal attachment:** - Intertubercular sulcus of the humerus. **Function:** - Adducts and medially rotates the upper limb and draws the scapula anteroinferior.   **PECORALIS MINOR** Deep to the pec major **Attachments:** - Origin - 3-5th ribs - Insertion: Coracoid process of the scapula **Function:** - Stabilises the scapula.   **SERRATUS ANTERIOR** Located more laterally in the chest wall and forms the medial border of the axilla region **Attachments:** - Origin - Lateral aspects of ribs 1-8 - Insertion: Medial border of scap. **Function:** Rotates the scap, allowing the arm to be raised over 90 degrees **Innervation:** - Long thoracic nerve.   **SUBCLAVIUS** Inferior to clavicle **Attachment:** - Origin: 1st and 1st cistal cartilage - Insertion: Inferior surface of the middle third of the clavicle **Function:** Anchors and depresses the clavicle and minor protection to the underlying neurovascular structures following fracture of the clavicle.   **MUSCLES OF THE SHOULDER**\   **TRAPEZIUS** - Flat and triangular muscle - Most superficial of the back muscles. Attachment: - Origin \> Skull, nuchal ligament and spinous processes. - Insertion - Clavicle, acromion Function: - The upper fibres of the trapezius elevate the scapula and rotates it during abduction of the arm. Innervation: - Accessory nerve   **LATISSIMUS DORSI** - Deep and lateral of the traps Attachments: - Origin \> Spinous processes of T7-T12, iliac crest - Insertion \> Intertubercular groove of the humerus. Function: - Extends, adducts. And medially rotates upper limb Innervation: Thoracodorsal nerve   DEEP/INTERNAL MUSCLES OF SHOULDER   LEVATOR SCAPULAE: - A small strap-like muscle Attachments: Origin: transverse processes of the C1-C4 VERTEBRAE Insertion \> Medial border of the scap Function: Elevates scapula   RHOMBOID MINOR Attachments: - Origin \> Spinous processses of C7-T1 - Insertion \> Medil border of the scapula - Function \> Retracts and rotates the scapula   RHOMBOID MAJOR Attachments: - Origin \> Spinous processes of T2-T5 vertebrae - Insertion \> Medial border of the scapula, - Function \> Retracts and rotates the scapula.   MUSCLES OF THE SHOULDER Rotator Cuff Muscles 1. Supraspinatus 2. Infraspinatus 3. Subscapularis 4. Teres Minor -   5. Teres Major 6. Deltoid   SUPRASPINATUS Attachments: - Origin \> Supraspinous fossa of the scap - Insertion \> Greater tubercle of the humerus - Innervation \> Suprascapular nerve Function: - Abducts the arm 0-15 deg., and assists deltoid 15-90 deg.   INFRASPINATUS Attachments: - Origin \> Infraspinous fossa of the scapula - Insertion: Greater tubercle of the humerus - Innervation: Suprascapular nerve - Function: Laterally rotates the arm   SUBSCAPULARIS Attachments: - Origin \> Subscapular fossa - Insertion \> Lesser tubercle of the humerus - Function: Medially rotates the arm   TERES MINOR Attachments: - Origin \> Lateral border of the scapula - Insertion \> Greater tubercle of the humerus - Function \> Laterally rotates the arm   TERES MAJOR Attachments: - Origin \> Inferior angle of the scapula - Insertion: Medial lip of the intertubercular groove of the humerus - Function \> Adducts and extends at the shoulder, and medially rotates the arm.   DELTOID Attachments: - Origin \> Later third of clavicle,. Acromion, Spine of scapula - Insertion \> Deltoid tuerosity on the lateral aspect of the humerus Functions: - Anterior Fibres \> Flexion and medial rotation - Posterior fibres - Extension and lateral rotation - Middle fibres - The major abductor of the arm   THE AXILLA - BORDERS Apex - the axillary inlet: 1. Lateral border of the first rib 2. Superior border of scapula 3. The posterior border of the clavicle   - Lateral wall - Humerus - Medial wall - serratus anterior - Anterior wall - pectoralis major and other muscles - Posterior wall - teres major and other muscles - Bas - Skin and fascia   CONTENTS - Axillary artery - Axillary vein - Brachial plexus - Axillary lymph nodes - Biceps Brachii (short head)   CLAVIPECTORAL FASCIA A fascia is a fibrous connective tissue that can wrap around neurovascular structures, organs, and muscles in order to reduce friction between adjacent structures.   MUSCLES OF THE ARM Three in the anterior (Flexor compartment) 1. Biceps Brachii 2. Brachialis 3. Coracobrachialis One posterior (extensor) compartment 1. Triceps   **BICEPS BRACHII** Located anteriorly to the humerus. Attachments: - Long had origin: Supraglenoid tubercle of the scap - Short head origin: Coracoid process of scap - Insertion: Radial tuberosity and the fascia of the forearm Function: Supination of the forearm and flexes the elbow.   CIRACOBRACHIALIS Deep to the biceps Attachments:\ - Origin \> Coracoid process of scap - Insertion \> Medial side of the humeral shaft, at level of deltoid tubercle. Function: - Flexion of the arm at the shoulder, and weak adduction   BRACHIALIS Deep to the biceps brachii Form the floor of the cubital fossa Attachments: - Origin \> Humeral shaft - Insertion\> ulnar tuberosity Function: - Flexion at elbow   TRICEPS BRABHII Attachments - Origin - Long head - Infraglenoid tubercle - Origin - Lateral head & Medial Head - Humerus - Insertion: olecranon of the ulna Function - Extension of the arm.     REGIONS OF THE UPPER LIMB CUBITAL REGION - Anterior Cubital region, cubital fossa - Posterior cubital region, olecranon region Antebrachial region - Anterior and posterior antebrachial region - Carpal region - Radial foveola: anatomical snuffbox   ELBOW JOINT Ligaments: 1. Radial collateral ligament 2. Ulnar collateral ligament Movements: - Extension - triceps brachii - Flexion - Biceps brachii   RADIOULNAR JOINTS Proximal radioulnar joint is articulation between the head of the radius and the radial nots of the ulna Pivot - synovial joint Ligaments: - Annular radial ligament - Annular is a circular ligament holding the head of the radius in the norma anatomic position and gives flexibility of movement between two bones (pronation and supination) Movement - Pronation and supination   NURSEMAIDS ELBOW When the radius is detached from the proximal ulna joint - dislocation of radius from elbow joint. Dislocation of radial collateral ligament   MUSCLES OF THE FOREARM Anterior compartment of the forearm - Superficial compartment - Deep compartment Functions: - Flexion at the wrist and fingers - Pronation of the forearm - Origin: medial epicondyle of the humerus   Superficial Compartment 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. pronator teres. flexor carpi radialis flexor digitorum superficialis palmaris longus flexor carpi ulnaris **HAND ON ARM:** **Thumb**: Pronator teres - Promation of forearm **Pointer**: Carpi radialis - Flexion and abduction at the wrist **Middle:** Flexor digitorum superficialis - Flexes the metacarpophalangeal joints and proximal interphalangeal joint **Ring:** Palmaris longus - Flexsion at wrist **Pinky**: Flexor carpi ulnaris - Ulnar nerve - Flexion and adduction at the wrist   FIRST THREE and Palmaris longus INNERVATED BY MEDIAN NERVE     DEEP COMPARTMENT **Flexor digitorum profundus** Function: - Flexion of the distal interphalangeal joints Innervation - Ulnar nerve and median nerve **Flexor pollicis longus** Function: - Flexion of thumb Median nerve **Pronator quadratus** Function: - Pronates the forearm Innervation: median nerve   POSTERIOR COMPARTMENT MAIN INNERVATION: Radial nerve MAIN FUNCTION: Extension and supination Muscles: - Brachioradialis - Extensor carpi Radialis Longus and Brevis - Extensor Digiti Minimi- movement of little finger - Extensor Carpi Ulnaris - Supinator, Abductor Pollicis Longus and Brevis - Extensor Pollicis Longus - Extensor Indicis movement of index finger   **MUSCLES OF THE HAND/WRIST**   Wrist Joint = Radiocarpal joint (condyloid joint)N Proximal row of carpal bones: 1. Scaphoid 2. Lunate 3. Triquetrum Pisiform does not articulate with the radius The triangular fibrocartilage disc in between the carpal bones. Wrist joint ligaments: - Radial collateral - Palmer radiocarpal - Ulnar collateral - Dorsal radiocarpal MUSCLES OF THE HAND Extrinsic: - Located in forearm Intrinsic muscles:\ - Thenar Muscles - Innervation: Median nerve - Hypothenar muscles - Innervation: Ulnar nerve - Lumbricals - Innervation: Median and Ulnar nerve - Interossei - Innervation: Ulnar nerve   THENAR AND HYPOTHENAR MUSCLES Thenar Muscles - Opponens Pollicis - Abductor Pollicis Brevis - Flexor Pollicis Brevis - Adductor Pollicis Hypothenar Muscles - Opponens Digiti Minimi - Abductor Digiti minimi - Flexor Digiti Minimi Brevis - Palmaris Brevis CARPAL TUNNEL - Laterally the scaphoid amd trapezum - Medially by the hook of the hamate and pisiform 10 structures: - Tendon of flexor pollicis longus - Four tendons of flexor digitorum profundus - Four tendons of flexor digitorum superficialis - Median nerve   +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ |   | | | | +=================+=================+=================+=================+ |   | **NEUROTRANSMIT | | | | | TERS** | | | | | | | | | | - Molecules | | | | | used by the | | | | | nervous | | | | | system to | | | | | transmit | | | | | messages | | | | | between | | | | | neurons, or | | | | | from | | | | | neurons to | | | | | muscles. | | | | | | | | | | - Communicati | | | | | on | | | | | happens in | | | | | the | | | | | synaptic | | | | | cleft | | | | | | | | | | - Electric | | | | | signals | | | | | that have | | | | | travelled | | | | | along the | | | | | axon are | | | | | briefly | | | | | converted | | | | | into | | | | | chemical | | | | | ones | | | | | through the | | | | | release of | | | | | neurotransm | | | | | itters, | | | | | causing a | | | | | specific | | | | | response in | | | | | the | | | | | receiving | | | | | neuron. | | | | | | | | | |   | | | | | | | | | | EXCITATORY: | | | | | | | | | | - Promotes | | | | | the | | | | | generation | | | | | of an | | | | | electrical | | | | | signal | | | | | | | | | | INHIBITORY: | | | | | | | | | | - Prevents | | | | | electrical | | | | | signals | | | | | | | | | | MODULATORY | | | | | | | | | | - Regulating | | | | | populations | | | | | of neurons, | | | | | while also | | | | | operating | | | | | over slower | | | | | time course | | | | | than | | | | | excitatory | | | | | and | | | | | inhibitory | | | | | transmitter | | | | | s | | | | | | | | | | Most | | | | | neurotransmitte | | | | | rs | | | | | are either | | | | | amino acids or | | | | | neuropeptides | | | | | | | | | |   | | | | | | | | | | GAMMA-AMINOBUTY | | | | | RIC | | | | | ACID GABA | | | | | | | | | | - Naturally | | | | | occurring | | | | | amino acid | | | | | acts as the | | | | | body\'s | | | | | main | | | | | inhibitory | | | | | messenger. | | | | | GABA motor | | | | | control, | | | | | and plays a | | | | | role in | | | | | regulation | | | | | of anxiety. | | | | | | | | | | GLUTAMATE | | | | | | | | | | - Most | | | | | plentiful | | | | | neurotransm | | | | | itter | | | | | found in | | | | | the nervous | | | | | system, | | | | | glutamate | | | | | plays a | | | | | role in | | | | | memory and | | | | | learning | | | | | | | | | | OXYTOCIN | | | | | | | | | | - This | | | | | powerful | | | | | hormone | | | | | acts as | | | | | neurotransm | | | | | itter | | | | | in the | | | | | brain. It | | | | | plays a | | | | | role in | | | | | social | | | | | recognition | | | | | , | | | | | bonding, | | | | | and sexual | | | | | reproductio | | | | | n | | | | | | | | | | ENDORPHINS: | | | | | | | | | | - Inhibit the | | | | | transmissio | | | | | n | | | | | of pain | | | | | signals and | | | | | promote | | | | | feelings of | | | | | euphoria. | | | | | These | | | | | chemical | | | | | messengers | | | | | are | | | | | produced | | | | | naturally | | | | | by the body | | | | | in response | | | | | to pain, | | | | | but they | | | | | can also be | | | | | triggered | | | | | by other | | | | | activities | | | | | such as | | | | | aerobic | | | | | exercise | | | | | | | | | |   | | | | | | | | | | EPINEPHRINE: | | | | | | | | | | - Known as | | | | | adrenaline | | | | | and is | | | | | considered | | | | | both a | | | | | hormone and | | | | | a | | | | | neurotransm | | | | | itter. | | | | | | | | | | NOREPINEPHRINE: | | | | | \ | | | | | - Plays an | | | | | important role | | | | | in alertness | | | | | and is involved | | | | | in the bodys | | | | | fight or flight | | | | | response | | | | | | | | | | HISTAMINE: | | | | | | | | | | - Plays a | | | | | role in | | | | | response to | | | | | allergic | | | | | reactions | | | | | and | | | | | response to | | | | | pathogens | | | | | | | | | | DOPAMINE: | | | | | | | | | | - Commonly | | | | | known as a | | | | | feel-good | | | | | neurotransm | | | | | itter, | | | | | dopamine is | | | | | invovled in | | | | | reward and | | | | | motivation | | | | | - | | | | | important | | | | | in | | | | | coordinatio | | | | | n | | | | | of bodys | | | | | movement/ | | | | | | | | | | SEROTONIN | | | | | | | | | | - Regulating | | | | | and | | | | | modulating | | | | | mood, sleep | | | | | and anxiety | | | | | | | | | | ADENOSINE | | | | | | | | | | - A | | | | | neuromodula | | | | | tor | | | | | to improve | | | | | sleep | | | | | | | | | | ACETYLCHOLINE | | | | | | | | | | - This is the | | | | | primary | | | | | neurotransm | | | | | itter | | | | | associated | | | | | with motor | | | | | neurons. It | | | | | plays a | | | | | role in | | | | | muscle | | | | | movements | | | | | as well as | | | | | memory and | | | | | learning. | | | | | | | | | |   | | | | | | | | | | **BRACHIAL | | | | | PLEXUS** | | | | | | | | | | - A network | | | | | of nerves | | | | | that | | | | | supplies | | | | | the skin | | | | | and muscles | | | | | of upper | | | | | limb. | | | | | | | | | | - Starts at | | | | | the root of | | | | | the neck | | | | | | | | | | - Passes | | | | | through | | | | | axilla | | | | | | | | | | - Supplies | | | | | entire | | | | | upper limn | | | | | | | | | | - Plexus is | | | | | formed by | | | | | spinal | | | | | nerves C5, | | | | | C6, C7, C8 | | | | | and T1. | | | | | | | | | | - Mainly | | | | | forming | | | | | Musculocuta | | | | | neous, | | | | | Axillary, | | | | | Median | | | | | Radial and | | | | | Ulnar | | | | | nerves | | | | | | | | | |   | | | | | | | | | | DIAGRAM | | | | | | | | | | -  | | | | | | | | | | NERVES OF UPPER | | | | | LIMB | | | | | | | | | | 1. **Musculocu | | | | | taneous | | | | | Nerve** - | | | | | Supplies: | | | | | Biceps | | | | | brachii, | | | | | Brachialis, | | | | | Coracobrach | | | | | ialis | | | | | | | | | | 2. **Axillary | | | | | nerve** - | | | | | innervates | | | | | teres minor | | | | | and | | | | | deltoids | | | | | | | | | | 3. **Median | | | | | nerve** - | | | | | Supplies | | | | | deep | | | | | muscles in | | | | | the | | | | | anterior | | | | | forearm, | | | | | innervates | | | | | the palmar | | | | | surface and | | | | | fingertips | | | | | | | | | | 4. **Radial | | | | | nerve** - | | | | | Supplies | | | | | triceps | | | | | brachii, | | | | | brachioradi | | | | | alis | | | | | and | | | | | extensor | | | | | carpi | | | | | radialis | | | | | longus and | | | | | muscles of | | | | | the | | | | | posterior | | | | | forearm | | | | | | | | | | 5. **Ulnar | | | | | Nerve** - | | | | | Innervates | | | | | two muscles | | | | | in the | | | | | anterior | | | | | compartment | | | | | of the | | | | | forearm | | | | | | | | | |   | | | | | | | | | | ARTERIAL SUPPLY | | | | | TO THE UPPER | | | | | LIMB | | | | | | | | | | 5 main arteries | | | | | in order | | | | | | | | | | - Subclavian | | | | | rtery | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Axillary | | | | | artery | | | | | | | | | | - Brachial | | | | | artery: | | | | | | | | | | - Radial | | | | | Artery | | | | | | | | | | - Ulnar | | | | | Artery | | | | | | | | | | - Superficial | | | | | and deep | | | | | palmar arch | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Digital | | | | | Arteries | | | | | | | | | | SUBCLAVIAN | | | | | ARTERY | | | | | | | | | | - Right | | | | | subclavian | | | | | artery | | | | | arises from | | | | | the | | | | | brachioceph | | | | | alic | | | | | trunk | | | | | | | | | | - Left | | | | | subclavian | | | | | artery | | | | | arises from | | | | | the artery | | | | | | | | | | AXILLARY ARTERY | | | | | | | | | | First part: | | | | | | | | | | - Before the | | | | | pectoralis | | | | | minor gives | | | | | one branch | | | | | (superior | | | | | thoracic | | | | | artery) | | | | | | | | | | Second part: | | | | | | | | | | - Posterior | | | | | to | | | | | pectoralis | | | | | minor gives | | | | | TWO | | | | | branches | | | | | (Thoracoacr | | | | | omial | | | | | artery and | | | | | Lateral | | | | | thoracic | | | | | artery) | | | | | | | | | | Third part: | | | | | | | | | | - After the | | | | | pectoralis | | | | | minor gives | | | | | THREE | | | | | branches | | | | | | | | | | - Subscapular | | | | | artery, | | | | | anterior | | | | | circumflex | | | | | humeral | | | | | arteries | | | | | and | | | | | posterior | | | | | circumflex | | | | | humeral | | | | | arteries | | | | | | | | | | BRACHIAL ARTERY | | | | | | | | | | Continuation of | | | | | the axillary | | | | | artery past the | | | | | lower border of | | | | | the teres major | | | | | | | | | | Main branch: | | | | | profunda | | | | | brachii (deep | | | | | brachii artery) | | | | | | | | | | RADIAL AND | | | | | ULNAR ARTEIES | | | | | | | | | | - Radial | | | | | artery | | | | | supplies | | | | | the | | | | | posterolate | | | | | ral | | | | | aspect of | | | | | the forearm | | | | | | | | | | - Ulnar | | | | | artery | | | | | supplies | | | | | the | | | | | anteromedia | | | | | l | | | | | aspect of | | | | | the forearm | | | | | and | | | | | interosseou | | | | | s | | | | | arteries | | | | | | | | | | - Superficial | | | | | palmar arch | | | | | and Deep | | | | | palmar arch | | | | | | | | | | - Digital | | | | | arteries | | | | | | | | | | VEIN OF UPPER | | | | | LIMB | | | | | | | | | | - Deep veins | | | | | follow | | | | | arteries | | | | | | | | | | - Superficial | | | | | veins | | | | | | | | | | Basilic Vein: | | | | | | | | | | - Originates | | | | | from the | | | | | dorsal | | | | | venous | | | | | network of | | | | | the hand | | | | | and ascends | | | | | the medial | | | | | aspect of | | | | | the upper | | | | | limb, | | | | | combines | | | | | with | | | | | brachial | | | | | vein | | | | | | | | | | Cephalic vein: | | | | | | | | | | - Originates | | | | | from the | | | | | dorsal | | | | | venous | | | | | network of | | | | | the hand. | | | | | It ascends | | | | | the | | | | | antero-late | | | | | ral | | | | | aspect of | | | | | the upper | | | | | limb, | | | | | passing | | | | | anteriorly | | | | | at the | | | | | elbow | | | | | | | | | |   | | | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ |   | | | | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ |   | OSTEOLOGY AND | | | | | ARTHORLOGY OF | | | | | LOWER LIMB | | | | | | | | | |   | | | | | | | | | | BONES OF THE | | | | | LOWER LIMB | | | | | | | | | |   | | | | | | | | | | Hip bones - | | | | | Along with the | | | | | sacrum, forms a | | | | | bony ring | | | | | around the | | | | | pelvic | | | | | structures. | | | | | | | | | | Femur - Longest | | | | | and strongest | | | | | bone in the | | | | | body | | | | | | | | | | Patella | | | | | (kneecap) - a | | | | | sesamoid bone | | | | | located in | | | | | front of the | | | | | knee joint. | | | | | | | | | |   | | | | | | | | | | Tibia (Shin | | | | | bone) is a long | | | | | bone whichh | | | | | forms the knee | | | | | joint and | | | | | connects the | | | | | femre to ankle | | | | | bones | | | | | | | | | | Fibula: thin | | | | | bone on lateral | | | | | aspect of leg | | | | | | | | | |   | | | | | | | | | | Tarsals - 7 | | | | | bones - talus, | | | | | calcaneus, | | | | | navicular, | | | | | cuboid, three | | | | | cuneiforms | | | | | | | | | | Metatarsals - | | | | | connects the | | | | | tarsus to the | | | | | phalanges | | | | | | | | | |   | | | | | | | | | |   | | | | | | | | | | PELVIC BONE AND | | | | | ARTICULATIONS | | | | | | | | | | - Sacrum: is | | | | | formed by | | | | | the fusion | | | | | of 5 | | | | | originally | | | | | separate | | | | | sacral | | | | | vertebrae | | | | | | | | | | - Coccyx: | | | | | formed by | | | | | the fusion | | | | | of 4 | | | | | originally | | | | | separated | | | | | coccygeal | | | | | bones | | | | | | | | | | - Three hip | | | | | bones - | | | | | Ilium, | | | | | Pubis, | | | | | Ischium | | | | | | | | | | - Sacroiliac | | | | | joints: | | | | | right and | | | | | left pubic | | | | | symphysis | | | | | | | | | |   | | | | | | | | | | FEMUR | | | | | | | | | | - Superior | | | | | epiphysis | | | | | consists of | | | | | the head, a | | | | | neck, a | | | | | greater and | | | | | lesser | | | | | trochanter | | | | | | | | | | - Inferior | | | | | epiphysis | | | | | consists of | | | | | patellar | | | | | surface, | | | | | and the | | | | | media and | | | | | lateral | | | | | condyle | | | | | | | | | |   | | | | | | | | | | - The head of | | | | | the femur | | | | | articulates | | | | | with the | | | | | hip bone at | | | | | the | | | | | acetabulum | | | | | to form the | | | | | hip joint. | | | | | | | | | | - Linea | | | | | aspera - a | | | | | longitudina | | | | | l | | | | | ridge on | | | | | its concave | | | | | posterior | | | | | aspect - | | | | | where | | | | | muscle | | | | | attachment | | | | | is. | | | | | | | | | | - Intercondyl | | | | | ar | | | | | fossa is a | | | | | small | | | | | depression | | | | | between the | | | | | two | | | | | condyles, | | | | | which | | | | | provides | | | | | attachment | | | | | to the | | | | | anterior | | | | | and | | | | | posterior | | | | | cruciate | | | | | ligaments. | | | | | | | | | |   | | | | | | | | | | KNEE JOINT | | | | | | | | | | - Hinge type | | | | | synovial | | | | | joint | | | | | (flexion | | | | | and | | | | | extension) | | | | | | | | | | Tibiofemoral - | | | | | medial and | | | | | lateral | | | | | condyles of the | | | | | femur | | | | | articulate with | | | | | the tibial | | | | | condyles. | | | | | | | | | | Patellofemoral | | | | | - anterior | | | | | aspect of the | | | | | distal femur | | | | | articulates | | | | | with the | | | | | patella. | | | | | | | | | |   | | | | | | | | | | TIBIA AND | | | | | FIBULA | | | | | | | | | | Tibia takes | | | | | part in forming | | | | | four joints: | | | | | | | | | | - Knee, | | | | | Ankle, | | | | | Superior | | | | | and | | | | | inferior | | | | | tibiofibula | | | | | r | | | | | joints. | | | | | | | | | | - The | | | | | cruciate | | | | | ligaments | | | | | and the | | | | | menisci are | | | | | attached in | | | | | the | | | | | intercondyl | | | | | ar | | | | | area | | | | | between the | | | | | two | | | | | condyles. | | | | | | | | | | - The | | | | | patellar | | | | | ligament is | | | | | attached to | | | | | the tibial | | | | | tuberosity. | | | | | | | | | |   | | | | | | | | | | Fibula is the | | | | | thin bone on | | | | | the lateral | | | | | aspect of the | | | | | leg, parallel | | | | | to the tibia. | | | | | It stabilizes | | | | | the ankle. The | | | | | fibular head | | | | | articulates | | | | | with the tibia | | | | | to form the | | | | | proximal | | | | | tibiofibular | | | | | joint. | | | | | | | | | |   | | | | | | | | | | ANKLE JOINT | | | | | | | | | | Hinged synovial | | | | | joint that is | | | | | formed by the | | | | | articulation of | | | | | the talus, | | | | | tibia ad | | | | | fibula. | | | | | | | | | | - The | | | | | articular | | | | | facet of | | | | | the lateral | | | | | malleolus | | | | | (bony | | | | | prominence | | | | | on the | | | | | lower | | | | | fibula) | | | | | forms the | | | | | lateral | | | | | border of | | | | | the ankle | | | | | joint. | | | | | | | | | |   | | | | | | | | | | BONES OF THE | | | | | FOOT | | | | | | | | | | Proximal group | | | | | - Hindfoot | | | | | | | | | | - Proximal | | | | | tarsal | | | | | bones are | | | | | the talus | | | | | and | | | | | calcaneus | | | | | | | | | | Superiorly: | | | | | | | | | | - Ankle | | | | | joint - | | | | | between the | | | | | talus and | | | | | tib/fib | | | | | | | | | | Inferiorly | | | | | | | | | | - Subtalar | | | | | joint - | | | | | between the | | | | | talus and | | | | | calcaneus | | | | | | | | | | Anteriorly | | | | | | | | | | - Talonavicul | | | | | ar | | | | | joint - | | | | | between the | | | | | talus and | | | | | the | | | | | navicular. | | | | | | | | | |   | | | | | | | | | | Calcaneus is | | | | | the largest | | | | | tarsal bone and | | | | | lies inferior | | | | | to talus | | | | | | | | | | 2 articulation: | | | | | | | | | | - Superiorly | | | | | - | | | | | Subtalar | | | | | (talocalcan | | | | | eal) | | | | | joint - | | | | | between the | | | | | calcaneus | | | | | and the | | | | | talus | | | | | | | | | | - Anteriorly | | | | | - | | | | | calcaneocub | | | | | oid | | | | | joint - | | | | | between the | | | | | calcaneus | | | | | and the | | | | | cuboid. | | | | | | | | | | Cuboid | | | | | | | | | | - Lying | | | | | anterior to | | | | | the | | | | | calcaneus | | | | | and behind | | | | | the 4th and | | | | | 5th | | | | | metatarsals | | | | | | | | | | Three | | | | | cuneiforms | | | | | (lateral, | | | | | intermediate, | | | | | medial) | | | | | | | | | | - They | | | | | articulate | | | | | with the | | | | | navicular | | | | | posteriorly | | | | | , | | | | | and the | | | | | metatarsals | | | | | anteriorly. | | | | | | | | | |   | | | | | | | | | | ARCHES OF FOOT | | | | | | | | | | - Medial | | | | | longitudina | | | | | l | | | | | arch | | | | | | | | | | - Transverse | | | | | arch | | | | | | | | | | - Lateral | | | | | longitudina | | | | | l | | | | | arch | | | | | | | | | |   | | | | | | | | | |   | | | | | | | | | | REGIONAL AND | | | | | FUNCTIONAL | | | | | ANATOMY OF THE | | | | | HIP AND PELVIC | | | | | GIRDLE | | | | | | | | | |   | | | | | | | | | | PELVIC BONES | | | | | AND | | | | | ARTICULATION | | | | | | | | | | Pelvic girdle | | | | | consists of two | | | | | hip bones, | | | | | sacrum and | | | | | coccyx. | | | | | | | | | | Sacroiliac | | | | | joints: ilium | | | | | of the hip bone | | | | | and sacrum | | | | | | | | | | - Sacrococcyg | | | | | eal | | | | | symphysis: | | | | | the sacrum | | | | | and the | | | | | coccyx. | | | | | | | | | | - Pubic | | | | | symphysis - | | | | | between the | | | | | pubis bones | | | | | | | | | | FUNCTIONS | | | | | | | | | | - Protects | | | | | pelvic | | | | | viscera | | | | | | | | | | - Transfer of | | | | | weight from | | | | | the axial | | | | | skeleton to | | | | | the lower | | | | | appendicula | | | | | r | | | | | | | | | | - Provides | | | | | muscles ad | | | | | ligaments | | | | | attachment | | | | | for the | | | | | locomotion. | | | | | | | | | |   | | | | | | | | | | LIGAMENTS OF | | | | | THE PELVIS | | | | | | | | | | - Pubic | | | | | symphysis | | | | | Ligaments | | | | | | | | | | - Superior | | | | | pubic | | | | | ligament | | | | | | | | | | - Inferior | | | | | pubic | | | | | ligament | | | | | | | | | | - Anterior | | | | | pubic | | | | | ligament | | | | | | | | | | - Posterior | | | | | pubic | | | | | ligament | | | | | | | | | | - Inguinal | | | | | ligament | | | | | | | | | | PELVIC BONES | | | | | AND | | | | | ARTICULATIONS | | | | | | | | | | - Sacro | | | | | tuberous | | | | | Ligament | | | | | | | | | | - Sacrospinou | | | | | s | | | | | L | | | | | | | | | | - Anterior | | | | | Sacroiliac | | | | | | | | | | - Posterior | | | | | Sacroiliac | | | | | | | | | | - Iliolumbar | | | | | L | | | | | | | | | | - Lateral | | | | | Lumbosacral | | | | | | | | | | - Sacrococcyg | | | | | eal | | | | | | | | | |   | | | | | | | | | | ILIUM | | | | | | | | | | - Consists of | | | | | a body | | | | | andwing | | | | | which is | | | | | demarcated | | | | | internally | | | | | by the | | | | | curved | | | | | arcuate | | | | | line and | | | | | externally | | | | | by the | | | | | acetabular | | | | | margin. | | | | | | | | | | - Body of the | | | | | ilium forms | | | | | the | | | | | superior | | | | | two fifths | | | | | of the | | | | | acetabular | | | | | fossa and | | | | | fuses with | | | | | the ischium | | | | | and the | | | | | pubis. | | | | | | | | | | ISCHIUM | | | | | | | | | | - Bone forms | | | | | the | | | | | posteroinfe | | | | | rior | | | | | aspect of | | | | | the hip | | | | | bone. | | | | | Consists of | | | | | two rami | | | | | (superior | | | | | and | | | | | inferior) | | | | | and body. | | | | | The body | | | | | forms more | | | | | than two | | | | | fifths of | | | | | the | | | | | acetabulum. | | | | | | | | | | PUBIS: | | | | | | | | | | - Forms one | | | | | fifth of | | | | | the | | | | | acetabulum. | | | | | Bodies of | | | | | two sides | | | | | mee at the | | | | | pubic | | | | | symphysis | | | | | in the | | | | | median | | | | | plane. | | | | | | | | | | - The | | | | | symphysial | | | | | surface of | | | | | the body is | | | | | covered in | | | | |