Anatomy and Physiology PDF (2023-2024)

College of Nursing Academic Year 2023-2024...

College of Nursing Academic Year 2023-2024 2024-2025 Anatomy and Physiology Bachelor of Science in Nursing LESSON 3: THE BODY TISSUES AND INTUGMENTARY SYSTEM TISSUE CELL SHAPE A group of cells with similar structure and function that have similar extracellular substances located between them. Squamous o Histology; The microscopic study of tissue structure. Cells work together in functionally related groups called tissues. Cuboidal o How is this done? ▪ Attachments ▪ communication Types of tissues: o Epithelial – lining and covering o Connective – support Columnar o Muscle – movement o Nervous – control Transitional CELLS ORGANIZE INTO THREE LAYERS Ectoderm – forms the exoskeleton NAMING THE EPHITELIA Mesoderm – develops into organs ◼ Naming the epithelia includes both the layers (first) Endoderm – forms the inner lining of organs and the shape of the cells (second) ▪ i.e., stratified cuboidal epithelium. TYPE OF TISSUES ◼ The name may also include any accessory EPITHELIAL TISSUE structures. ▪ Goblet cells o Barrier ▪ Cilia o Secretion ▪ Keratin o Absorption ◼ Special epithelial tissues (don’t follow naming o Protection convention) o Passage ▪ Pseudostratified This type of tissue covers body surfaces, forms ▪ Transitional glands, and lines body cavities, hollow organs, and ducts. CLASSIFICATIONS OF EPITHELIA CELL LAYERS Last name of tissue describes shape of cells. Simple epithelium Squamous – cells wider than tall o (1 layer) (plate or “scale” like) Pseudostratified Epithelium o (1 layer but appears many) Stratified Epithelium Cuboidal – cells are as wide as tall, o (multiple layer) as in cubes. Columnar – cells are taller than they are wide, like columns. TRANSCRIBED BY MARIONNE LABANDARA BSN1 Y1-2 1  LESSON 2: CELL, CELLULAR STRUCTURE, FUNCTIONS, METABOLISM AND REPRODUCTION SIMPLE SQUAMOUS EPHITELIAUM o Partially responsible for the movement of oocytes Structure through the uterine tubes by ciliated cells o Single layer or flat, often hexagonal cells o Secretion by cells of the glands, the stomach, and the o The nuclei appear as bumps when viewed in a cross intestine section because the cells are so flat. o Absorption by cells of the intestine Functions Location o Diffusion o Glands and some ducts ▪ Lungs; alveoli o Bronchioles of lungs o Filtration o Auditory tubes ▪ Kidney; glomerulus; leading to formation of urine o Uterus and uterine tubes while leaving large molecules such as protein o Stomach, intestines, gallbladder, and bile ducts and blood cells back in the blood vessels. o Ventricles of the brain o Some Secretion SIMPLE COLUMNAR EPITHELIUM ▪ fluid from the secretions of simple squamous Location epithelium because it lubricates the surfaces o Non-ciliated form between the organs thereby preventing damage ▪ Lines digestive tract, gallbladder, ducts of some from friction when the organs rub against one glands another or the body wall. o Ciliated form ▪ Some protection against friction ▪ Lines small bronchi, uterine tubes, and uterus Location TRANSITIONAL EPITHELIUM o Lining of the blood vessels and the heart, lymphatic Description vessels o Resembles both stratified squamous and stratified o Alveoli of the lungs cuboidal; basal cells cuboidal or columnar; surface o Portions of the kidney tubules cells dome shaped or squamous-like, depending on o Lining of serous membrane of body cavities (ex: degree of organ stretch. pleural, the lungs; pericardial, the heart; peritoneal, the Function digestive organs) o Stretches readily and permits distension of urinary organ by contained urine. SIMPLE CUBOIDAL EPHITELIUM Location Structure o lines the ureters bladder and part of urethra\ o Single layered of cube shaped cells Photomicrograph o Some have microvilli (Kidney tubules) or cilia o Transitional epithelium lining the bladder, relaxed (Terminal bronchioles of the lungs) state (390x); note the bulbous, or rounded, appearance of the cells at the surface; these cells Functions flatten and become elongated when the bladder is o Secretion and absorption by cells of the kidney field with urine. tubules ▪ Through this and their greater volume and PSEUDOSTRATIFIED COLUMNAR EPITHELIUM organelles, they can enable active transport and Structure facilitated diffusion. o Single layer of cells o Secretion by cells of glands and choroid plexuses o Some cells are tall and thin and reach the free surface, ▪ Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is a watery liquid that and others do not. continually circulates through the brain’s o The nuclei of these cells are at different levels and ventricles (hollow cavities) and around the appear stratified. surface of the brain and spinal cord. o The cells are almost always ciliated and are o Movement of particles embedded in mucus out of the associated with goblet cells that secrete mucus onto terminal bronchioles by ciliated cells. the free surface. Location Functions o Kidney tubules o Synthesize and secrete mucus onto the free surface o Glands and their ducts choroid plexuses and move mucus (or fluid) that contains foreign o Lining of terminal bronchioles of the lungs particles over the surface of the free surface and from o Surfaces of the ovaries passages (found in the upper respiratory tract) Location SIMPLE COLUMNAR EPITHELIUM o Lining of nasal sinuses Structure o The epididymis and male urethra have o Single layer of tall narrow cells Pseudostratified columnar epithelium Auditory tubes, o Some have cilia (Bronchioles of lung, auditory tubes, pharynx, trachea, and bronchi of lungs. uterine tubes), or microvilli (Intestine) ▪ That allows it to conduct complex processes STRATIFIED SQUAMOUS EPITHELIUM such as mucus secretions. The mucus protects Structure the lining of the intestine, and the digestive o Several layers of cells that are cuboidal in the basal enzymes complete the process of digesting layer and progressively flattened toward the surface. food. o The epithelium can be nonkeratinized (moist) or Functions keratinized. o Movement of particles out of the bronchioles of the lungs by ciliated cells TRANSCRIBED BY MARIONNE LABANDARA BSN1 Y1-2 2  LESSON 2: CELL, CELLULAR STRUCTURE, FUNCTIONS, METABOLISM AND REPRODUCTION ▪ In nonkeratinized stratified squamous epithelium, the surface cells retain a nucleus and cytoplasm. ▪ In keratinized stratified epithelium, the cytoplasm of cells at the surface is replaced by a protein called keratin, and the cells are dead the cells are almost always ciliated and are associated with goblet cells that secrete mucus onto the free surface. Functions o Main function is protection as it forms a thick layer of epithelium made from several layers of cells. o Protects against abrasion, forms a barrier against infection, and reduces loss of water from the body. Location o Keratinized; outer layer of the skin. o Nonkeratinized; mouth, throat, larynx, esophagus anus, vagina, inferior urethra, and corneas CONNECTIVE TISSUES This type of tissue protects and supports the body and its organs, binds organs together, stores energy reserves as fat, and provides immunity. o Protection. o Enclosing and separating other tissues. o Storing compounds. o Transportation o Cushioning and insulating. o Connecting tissues to one another. FUNCTIONS OF CONNECTIVE TISSUES (PESTCC) - It protects the body by destroying Protection invading microorganisms and eliminating cellular debris. Protection from injury can also be sought from bones. - Liver and kidneys were encapsulated Encapsulation to help them be separated from other and Separation tissues and organs. More so, connective tissues divide structures such as muscles, nerves as well as blood vessels from one another. - Storing energy through fat tissues and Storage cells provides reserves for the body. Bones in addition, stores minerals such as calcium and phosphate. - It transports materials throughout the Transport body. For instance, blood, delivers TYPES OF CONNECTIVE TISSUES nutrients, enzymes, and essential nutrients. I. CONNECTIVE TISSUE PROPER: LOOSE - Adipose tissue cushions and protects CONNECTIVE TISSUE Cushion and the tissues it surrounds and provides Few protein fibers, numerous spaces/more ground Insulation an insulating layer beneath the skin substance that helps conserve heat. - Connective tissues bind, supports, AREOLAR TISSUE Connection and strengthen other tissues. For EM: collagen fibers and few elastic fibers instance, tendons attach muscles to Description bones while ligaments hold bones o Mostly composed of collagen fibers and few elastic fibers together. o Has fibroblast, macrophages, and lymphocytes – Functions o Loose packing o Support o Nourishment o TRANSCRIBED BY MARIONNE LABANDARA BSN1 Y1-2 3  LESSON 2: CELL, CELLULAR STRUCTURE, FUNCTIONS, METABOLISM AND REPRODUCTION Main Location Main Location o All throughout the body skin, glands, muscles, and o Vertebrae nerves o Posterior neck ADIPOSE TISSUE o Vocal cords Consists of adipocytes (fat cells) o Walls of blood vessels Contain large amounts of lipid (for energy storage) o Lungs o EM: loose arranged collagen and reticular fibers, scattered elastic fibers Structure o Little extracellular matrix o Adipocytes filled with triglycerides Functions o Packing material o Insulation o Energy storage o Cushion Main Location o Subcutaneous o Mesenteries o Kidneys o Mammary gland o Spaces and crevices, where there is areolar CT RETICULAR TISSUE Structure o Irregularly arranged fine network of reticular fibers o Reticular cells Functions o Superstructure for vessels, lymph nodes and hematopoietic tissues; stroma; binds to smooth muscle Main Location o Framework of liver o Lymph nodes o Spleen o Bone marrow o Blood vessels II. CONNECTIVE TISSUE PROPER: DENSE SUPPORTING CONNECTIVE TISSUE: CARTILAGE CONNECTIVE TISSUE Composed of chondrocytes, in spaces called lacunae - DENSE, REGULAR COLLAGENOUS (WAVY) Flexibility and strength Structure Provides support o Densely packed collagen fibers (parallel-tendon and Semi-solid matrix ligament; various direction-dermis and organ HYALINE CARTILAGE capsules) Most abundant, covers the ends of bones, and can withstand o Fibroblasts repeated compressions. Functions Structure o Stretching o Appears bluish-white and shiny o Recoiling o Evenly dispersed collagen fibers o Tensile strength o Chondrocytes in between spaces Main Location Functions o Tendons and ligaments o Growth o Dermis o Rigidity and flexibility o Organ capsules o For bone/joint articulation o Outer layer of blood vessels Main Location DENSE, REGULAR ELASTIC o Long bones Structure o Trachea o Elastin and collagen fibers are parallel with the o Larynx direction of elastic ligaments o Costal cartilage of ribs Functions o Embryonic skeleton o Stretching FIBRO CARTILAGE o Recoiling More collagen, able to resists pulling or tearing, found in disks o Resistance between vertebrae and some joints (knee and jaw) TRANSCRIBED BY MARIONNE LABANDARA BSN1 Y1-2 4  LESSON 2: CELL, CELLULAR STRUCTURE, FUNCTIONS, METABOLISM AND REPRODUCTION o White blood cells Structure o Platelets o Tough and very strong tissue Structure o Chondrocytes o Blood cells and a fluid matrix (plasma) that is 90-92% Functions water o Tough support Functions o Rigidity o Nutrient transport and of other substances Main Location o Immunity o Intervertebral disks Main Location o Pubic symphysis o Blood within the blood vessels o Articular disks ELASTIC CARTILAGE Contains elastic fibers and is able to recoil to its original, external ear, epiglottis, auditory tube. Structure o Densely packed cartilaginous tissue with elastin fibers Functions o Rigidity o Flexibility Main Location o Ears o Epiglottis o Auditory MASCULAR TISSUE This type of tissue generates the physical force needed to make body structures move. Consists of muscle fibers (cells) containing thin, longitudinal, parallel contractile units called myofibril (actin and myosin) SUPPORTING CONNECTIVE TISSUE: BONE Hard connective tissue Consists of living cells, mineralized matrix Osteocytes (bone cells), are located within lacunae Support and protect other organs Solid matrix TYPES OF MUSCE TISSUE SPONGY & COMPACT BONE SKELETAL MUSCLE Structure Striated (banded) o Hard, bony matrix (lamellae) o Osteocytes Voluntary Functions Multinucleated o Strength and support Responsible for body movement o Protection Structure o Attachment o Skeletal muscle cells or fibers appear striated o Storage (banded) Main Location o Cells are large, long, and cylindrical, with many Bones nuclei FLUID CONNECTIVE TISSUE Functions BLOOD o Voluntary movement of the body Liquid matrix Main Location Enables blood to flow rapidly; carry nutrients, oxygen, o Attached to the bone or other connective tissue waste products o Red blood cells TRANSCRIBED BY MARIONNE LABANDARA BSN1 Y1-2 5  LESSON 2: CELL, CELLULAR STRUCTURE, FUNCTIONS, METABOLISM AND REPRODUCTION CARDIAC MUSCLE Striated involuntary Single nucleated Description o Cardiac muscle cells are cylindrical and striated and have a single nucleus o They are branched and connected to one another by intercalated disks, which contain gap junctions Functions o Pumps the blood (Involuntary unconscious control) Main Location o In the heart SMOOTH MUSCLE End tapered cells Single nucleated Involuntary conscious control Functions o Regulates size of organs, forces fluid through tubes, controls the amount of light entering the eye, produces ‘goose bumps’ Main Location o In hollow organs, such as the stomach and intestine o Skin and eyes NERVOUS TISSUE This type of tissue detects changes inside and outside the body and generates transmits nerve impulses that coordinate body activities to help maintain homeostasis. o Found in the brain, spinal cord, and nerves o Responsible for coordinating and controlling o Detects changes in the body o Consists of neurons (signal transmission and receive) and glial cells (support and nourishment) NEURONS Nerve cell o Responsible for conducting action potentials o Parts of a Neuron Cell Body o Contains the nucleus o Site of general cell functions Dendrites o Receives electric impulses Axon o Conduct electric impulses Functions o Neurons transmit information in the form of action potentials, store information, and integrate and evaluate data o Neuroglia support, protect, and form specialized sheaths around axons Main Locations o Brain o Ganglia o Spinal cord TRANSCRIBED BY MARIONNE LABANDARA BSN1 Y1-2 6  LESSON 2: CELL, CELLULAR STRUCTURE, FUNCTIONS, METABOLISM AND REPRODUCTION Intugmentary System - Although we SKIN are often concerned with how the integumentary system looks, it has many important functions that go beyond appearance. The integumentary system forms the boundary between the body and the external environment, thereby separating us from the external environment while allowing us to interact with it. It comprises of skin, hair, glands, nails, and sensory receptors It is the organ system that we could find as the outermost layer of the body EPIDERMIS Most superficial layer First line of defense Stratified squamous epithelium In deepest layers, mitosis occurs Layer of the Epidermis - deepest; cuboidal & columnar cells, undergo mitosis every 19 days - Proliferation: Term used to define the increased number of cells via cell Stratum Basale division i.e., mitosis - Highly proliferative - Keratinization: cells change shape and chemical composition; cells become filed with the protein keratin (hard) Stratum Spinosum - Spiny epithelial cells The skin is made up of two major tissue layers, the - Flattened cells epidermis and the dermis. The epidermis (ep-i-der′mis; - Also called Keratohyalin upon the dermis) is the superficial layer of the skin, Granules: Responsible for Stratum consisting of epithelial tissue. The epidermis resists synthesizing protein keratin, can be Granulose abrasion on the skin’s surface and reduces water loss found in the through the skin. The epidermis rests on the dermis cytoplasm - Can only be found in the palms and (der′mis; skin), a layer of connective tissue. The dermis is soles of the foot responsible for most of the structural strength of the skin. Stratum Lucidum - Makes the skin in our palms and soles The strength of the dermis is seen in leather, which is thicker than the rest of the body due to produced from the hide (skin) of an animal by removing the additional 2-3 cell layer the epidermis and preserving the dermis in a process - Eleidin conversion instead of the called tanning. Keratin - Most superficial stratum The skin rests on the subcutaneous tissue, or hypodermis - Dead skin cells (Anucleate: The (hi-pō-der′mis), a layer of loose connective tissue (figure Stratum nucleus is no longer present) 5.1). The subcutaneous tissue is not part of the skin or Corneum - Non-proliferative layer the integumentary system, but it does connect the skin to - Dead squamous cells filled with underlying muscle or bone. keratin (structural strength); lipids (prevent fluid loss); joined by FUNCTIONS OF THE INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM desmosomes 1. Protection Protects deeper tissues from: DERMIS o Mechanical Damage o Chemical Damage o Bacterial Damage o Thermal Damage o Ultraviolet Radiation o Desiccation 2. Sensation 3. Vitamin D Production 4. Aids in Heat Regulation 5. Aids in Excretion of Urea and Uric Acid TRANSCRIBED BY MARIONNE LABANDARA BSN1 Y1-2 7  LESSON 2: CELL, CELLULAR STRUCTURE, FUNCTIONS, METABOLISM AND REPRODUCTION The second layer of the skin after the epidermis SKIN APPENDAGES Dense collagenous connective tissue, contains - A smooth muscle responsible for fibroblasts, adipocytes, macrophages (mast cells also goosebumps Arrector Pili - It is being controlled by a division of known as immune cells) Muscle the nervous system that is related with Consists of nerves, hair follicles, smooth muscles, glands, the involuntary control of the body lymphatic vessels structure Dense Collagenous Connective Tissue - Located in the papillary layer o Fibroblasts - Reason why the hair grows in length o Adipocytes Hair Follicle - There is a presence of cell bulb where o Macrophages mitosis occur o Dermal papillae Nail - Heavily keratinized nail plate o Papillary region - They are commonly found in the face Dermal Layers and scalp - Wavy (Convoluted) Oil Glands - Attached to a hair follicle structure to create - Secretion of oil is for lubrication and Papillary Layer Dermal an intact immunity Papillae attachment - Sebum: Medical term for oil between the Dermis - Sweat secretion; thermoregulation; and the Epidermis widely distributed - Sudor: Medical term for sweat - Contains blood - Located in the reticular layer vessels that supply Sweat Glands Types of Sweat Glands the epidermis with Eccrine Apocrine nutrients, remove - Secretion is - Secretion is waste products, and directly on still regulate body pores connected to temperature - Commonly the hair Pain - Also known as found all follicle Receptors Nocireceptors over the - Can only be - Blood vessels body found in the Capillar - Responsible for the auxiliary and y redness of the skin groin areas Loops of the body - Much thicker layer than the papillary layer PHYSIOLOGY OF THE INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM - A vast majority of our blood vessels can be found here SENSATION Reticular Layer - Endocrine sweat gland and sebaceous (Oil) gland can be also Meissner corpuscles- sensitivity to light touch found here Pacinian corpuscles- sensitivity to vibration and - Contains collagen (resist stretching) pressure. and elastic fibers: structural strength Thermoreceptors - changes in temperature - The thickness of the dermal layer is Nociceptors - Pain receptors different for every part of the body TEMPERATURE SKIN COLOR Sweating-waste - A pigment produced by Large reservoir of blood melanocytes particularly in the melanosome Protective barrier for the internal organs Melanin - Melanocytes: Produce melanin; PROTECTION irregularly shaped cells; found in the Protects the body against invasion of pathogenic stratum basale - Melanosomes: Vesicles derived microorganisms as well as extensive water loss from GA where melanin is Decreases chances of having abrasions produced - Yellow (Caucasian or White) VITAMIN D PRODUCTION Melanin - Brown (Asian) Vitamin D plays an important role in calcium homeostasis Pigments - Black (African) in the body. - Responsible for the yellowish hue of Carotene our skin - Accumulation of Vitamin A in the adipocytes and subcutaneous tissue - Bluish discoloration of the skin or Paleness mucous membrane and - Decreased blood O2 Cyanosis - recessive genetic trait that causes Albinism deficiency or absence of melanin TRANSCRIBED BY MARIONNE LABANDARA BSN1 Y1-2 8