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Human Anatomy and Physiology 111 PRELIMS – REVIEWER Josh Ng | BS Radtech | 1-Y1-1 _________________________________________________________________________________________________ INTRODUCTION TO ANAPHY I. Introduction LEVELS OF ORGANI...

Human Anatomy and Physiology 111 PRELIMS – REVIEWER Josh Ng | BS Radtech | 1-Y1-1 _________________________________________________________________________________________________ INTRODUCTION TO ANAPHY I. Introduction LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION A. Anatomy i. 2 major fields From smallest to largest ii. 5 major divisions of gross anatomy  Atoms – smallest functional unit of matter iii. 2 major divisions of microscopic anatomy  Molecules – complex structure of atoms; iv. Levels of Organization active chemicals v. Systems of Human Body  Organelles – specialized structure within the vi. Anatomical Landmarks cell vii. Body Cavities  Cells – smallest living unit viii. Types of Movements  Tissues – two or more cells that work B. Physiology together i. Basic divisions of physiology  Organs – two or more tissues that work ii. Homeostasis together iii. 4 general mechanism  Organ Systems – two or more organs that iv. Homeostatic regulatory work together  Organism – A single individual, containing everything ANATOMY SYSTEMS OF HUMAN BODY  Describes the structure of the body  It is a plan or map of the body MS. NELI CRRUD  Anatomy “a cutting open”  Muscular System 2 MAJOR DIVISIONS OF ANATOMY  Skeletal System  Nervous System  Gross Anatomy – Large, visible structures  Endocrine System  Microscopic Anatomy – too small to see;  Lymphatic System Cell molecules.  Integumentary System  Cardiovascular System 5 MAJOR DIVISIONS OF GROSS ANATOMY  Respiratory System  Reproductive system  Urinary System  Surface Anatomy – described the surface form/ marks/  Digestive system  Regional Anatomy – the organization of ANATOMICAL BODY LANDMARKS specific area of the body. e.g. head, hand  Systematic Anatomy – group of organs that Body Positioning functions as one (single purpose).  Anatomical Body Position – is the  Developmental Anatomy – changes in international standard anatomical position structure of organism. e.g. from fertilized that provides a reference point for egg to maturity. Embryology is the study of describing the structures of the human early development. body.  Clinical Anatomy – medical specialties, like  Body standing erect with good posture, face medical anatomy (changes during illness), looking directly forward. and radiographic anatomy (appear in  Feet are together, 6 inches apart, flat on the scans). floor, toes pointing forward. 2 MAJOR DIVISIONS OF MICROSCOPIC ANATOMY  Arms down at the side, palms turned forward, thumb side of the hand away from body  Cytology – Cells  Lying face down – prone  Histology – Tissues  Lying face up – supine Human Anatomy and Physiology 111 PRELIMS – REVIEWER Josh Ng | BS Radtech | 1-Y1-1 _________________________________________________________________________________________________ ANATOMICAL BODY LANDMARKS ANATOMICAL BODY LANDMARKS  Anterior (ventral) – front of the body  Pollex (pollicis) – thumb  Posterior (dorsal) – back of the body  Digits (phalanges) – fingers  Superior (cranial) – above Lower Body  Inferior (caudal) – below  Gluteus (gluteal region) – butt  Lateral – away from the midline/median  Pubic – mons pubis  Medial (median) – the origin, midline  Femoral – thighs  Deep – away from the surface, towards  Crural (crus) – leg internal  Patellar – kneecap  Superficial – near the external surface  Popliteal – posterior of knee  Proximal – near the median  Peroneal – outside of the leg  Distal – away from median  Sura – calf  Tarsal – ankle Cephalon or Cephalic region – refers to the head  Calcaneus (calcaneal) – heel  Pes (pedal) – foot  Cranium - skull  Plantar – sole of foot  Facies – face  Hallux – toes  Frons (frontal) - forehead Body is split up into two main areas, each area is  Oculus (Orbital) – eye cavity, eyes divided into regions.  Auris - Ear Axial region – head, vertebral column, trunk  Bucca (Buccal) - cheek Appendicular region – pelvice girdles, upper and  Nausus (Nasal) - nose lower limbs, extremities (upper lower appendages)  Oris (Oral) - mouth  Mentis (Mental) - chin Axial Region  Cervicis (cervical region) – neck  Cephalic (head)  Frontal (forehead) Thoracic Area – chest  Facial (face)  Acromial – point of shoulder  Occipital (posterior head)  Deltoid – curve of shoulder  Orbital (eye cavity)  Dorsum (dorsal area) – back  Buccal (cheek)  Scapula (scapular area) – shoulder blades  Thoracic (chest)  Sternal – breastbone area  Sternal (sternum)  Mamma – breast  Umbilical (navel)  Axillary – armpit  Inguinal (groin)  Pelvic – lower torso, between abdomen and  Pubic (mons pubis) thighs, overlying the pelvis anteriorly  Genital (reproductive organ)  Inguinal – Groin; where the thigh meets the  Perineal (perineal area) body  Dorsum (back) Abdominal region – between chest and pelvis  Vertebral (spine) Upper Body  Cervical (neck)  Abdominal – anterior trunk inferior to ribs  Thoracic (middle of the back)  Brachium (brachial) – arm  Lumbar (lower back)  Olecranon (olecranal, cubital) – elbow  Sacral (Sacrum)  Antecubital – anterior of the elbow Appendicular Region (Upper Limb)  Antebrachium – forearm  Pectoral (Chest)  Carpal – wrist  Clavicular (Clavicle)  Manus (manual) – hand  Acromial (acromion, point of the shoulder)  Palma (Palmar) – palm  Scapular (scapula) Human Anatomy and Physiology 111 PRELIMS – REVIEWER Josh Ng | BS Radtech | 1-Y1-1 _________________________________________________________________________________________________ ANATOMICAL BODY LANDMARKS  Cranial cavity – contains the cranium  The fluid filled space inside the cranium is  Interscapula (between two scapulae) cranial cavity, it contains the brain.  Axillary (armpits)  Spinal cavity – surrounded by the vertebrae;  Brachial (arm) the space that encloses the spinal cord;  Antebrachial (forearm) extends from cranial cavity to the base of  Cubital (elbow) the spine  Carpal (wrist)  Thoracic, Abdominal and pelvic  Digits (fingers) (abdominopelvic), is separated by  Pollicis (thumb) diaphragm (phren/phrenic)  Palmar (palm)  Mediastinum – contains all organs except Lower Body lungs  Gluteal (buttocks)  Ventral Body cavity contains the organs in  Coxal (hip) the chest and abdomen.  Femoral (thigh)  Patellar (knee) The thoracic cavity contains  Popliteal (posterior of knee)  Lungs  Crural (leg)  Heart  Tarsal (ankle)  Lower esophagus  Calcaneal (heel)  Thymus gland  Pedal (foot)  Other organs of cardiovascular, respiratory, lymphatic system  Plantar (sole of foot)  Subsided into the right pleural cavity of the ANATOMICAL PLANES right lung, left pleural cavity of the left lung.  Frontal or coronal plane – separates the  Mediastinum – between the pleural cavities, anterior and posterior; ventral and dorsal; houses the trachea, esophagus, thymus, front and back heart, and vessels connected to the heart.  Midcoronal – equally divided into anterior The abdominal cavity contains and posterior  Transverse plane or Axial plane – separates  Liver the body into superior and inferior; top and  Gallbladder bottom; upper and lower  Spleen  Sagittal plane – separates the body into left  Kidneys and right  Pancreas  Midsagittal – equally divided into left and  Stomach right  Small intestine  Parasagittal – unequally divided  Majority of large intestine The pelvic cavity contains BODY CAVITIES  Surrounded by the pelvis Body contains two main cavities; dorsal and  Inferior portion of the large intestine ventral, that house and protect the internal organs  Bladder  Uterine tubes  Dorsal cavity - Cranial cavity  Reproductive organs - Spinal cavity  Ventral cavity - Thoracic cavity - Abdominal cavity - Pelvic cavity Human Anatomy and Physiology 111 PRELIMS – REVIEWER Josh Ng | BS Radtech | 1-Y1-1 _________________________________________________________________________________________________ REGIONS OF THE ABDOMEN AND PELVIC REGIONS OF THE ABDOMEN AND PELVIC 4 Quadrants of the body; right upper quadrant, right  Ascending colon lower quadrant, left upper quadrant, left lower  Small intestine quadrant.  Divided into nine regions: Hypogastric Region Right Hypochondriac Region  Bladder  Sigmoid colon  Liver  Small intestine  Right Kidney  Reproductive organs  Gallbladder  Large/small intestine Left Iliac Region Epigastric Region  Sigmoid colon  Descending colon  Liver  Small intestine  Stomach  Spleen  Duodenum  Adrenal  Glands  Pancreas Left Hypochondriac Region  Liver’s tip  Stomach  Pancreas  Left kidney  Spleen  Large/small intestine Right Lumbar Region  Ascending colon  Small intestine TYPE OF MOVEMENTS  Right kidney  Abduction – movement away from the Umbilical Region midline; also refers to spreading apart of  Duodenum fingers or toes  Small intestine  Adduction – movement toward the middle of  Transverse colon the body; also refers to movements of the fingers or toes when drawn closer together Left Lumbar Region  Circumduction – cone-shaped path; complex movement which combines  Descending colon abduction, adduction, extension, and  Small intestine flexion; incorporates all movements of ball  Left kidney and socket joints. Right Iliac Region  Dorsiflexion – movement of the foot which brings toes closer to the shin  Appendix  Extension – straightening of a joint so that  Cecum two bones move further apart Human Anatomy and Physiology 111 PRELIMS – REVIEWER Josh Ng | BS Radtech | 1-Y1-1 _________________________________________________________________________________________________ TYPES OF MOVEMENTS 4 GENERAL MECHANISM REGULATE HOMEOSTATIS  Extrinsic Regulation – changes regulated by  Flexion – bending a joint so that two bones the nervous and endocrine system move closer together; inversion – turning  Nervous System – short nerve responses to the sole of the foot inwards; eversion – external stimuli turning the sole of the foot outwards.  Endocrine System – internal conditions with  Plantar Flexion – movement of the foot long-term chemical controls; hormones which takes the toes further away from the shin; pointing the toes downwards HOMEOSTATIC REGULATORY MECHANISM  Pronation – turning the wrist so that the  Receptors – sensors that respond to a palm faces downwards (clue word: prone) stimulus  Supination – turning the wrist so that the  Control center – receives the information palm faces upwards (clue word: supine) from receptor and sends out command  Rotation – movement around the axis of a  Effectors – responds to the control center bone or body part; medial rotation – - If the effector opposes the stimulus, movement towards the midline of the body; negative feedback lateral rotation – movement away from the - If the effector speeds up the process of midline the stimulus, positive feedback  A state of equilibrium exists when opposing PHYSIOLOGY forces are in balance  When homeostasis is threatened,  The function of each structure; individual or physiological systems will attempt to restore combination the balance within normal limits, failure to  The study of function of each structure maintain internal conditions in equilibrium results in disease or death. 4 BASIC DIVISIONS OF PHYSIOLOGY VITAL SIGNS / CARDINAL SIGNS  Cell Physiology – chemical and molecular Respiration Rate – 12-20 per minute processes within the cell; processes within Normal Temperature – 37.5 the cell  Special Physiology – specific organs such  Above normal – hyperthermia as heart  Below normal – hypothermia  Systematic Physiology – cooperative Pulse Rate – 80 – 100 in adult; 115-130 in infant functions of all the organs in an organ system  Above normal – bradycardia  Pathological physiology – the effects of  Below normal – tachycardia diseases on organs and organ systems Blood Pressure – 120/80 HOMEOSTASIS EXTRAS IN INTRODUCTION  The foundation of all physiology  Means staying the same  Mikros – small  Clue words: normal, equilibrium  Makros – large  When the body does not function within its  Scopio – to see normal range, organ systems malfunction,  Fetus – young one resulting in diseases.  Ology – study of  Cyto – cells 4 GENERAL MECHANISM REGULATE HOMEOSTATSIS  Cytes – organs  Autoregulation/ Intrinsic Regulation –  Viscera – large internal organs automatic response to changes in environment Human Anatomy and Physiology 111 PRELIMS – REVIEWER Josh Ng | BS Radtech | 1-Y1-1 _________________________________________________________________________________________________ CELLS AND TISSUES PARTS OF A CELL I. Cells i. Movement of substances - cell membrane  Cell membrane – is extremely thin, and has ii. Life cycle of a cell outpouchings and in foldings II. Tissue - It is selectively permeable – controls i. 4 main categories of tissues in human body what enters and leaves the cell, it allows ii. 3 types of cartilage some things to pass but not others, this is the MAIN FUNCTION of the cell membrane - It is also called plasma membrane or CELL ANATOMY plasmalemma - It is made up of lipid molecules and  Cell is the functional basic unit of life protein molecules  Discovered by Robert Hooke and is the - 2 layers of lipid molecules dispersed functional unit of all known living organisms with protein molecules  50-100 trillion cells in human body - Phospholipids – most abundant lipid  It is the smallest unit of life that is classified molecule in the cell membrane as a living thing, and is often called the - 2 proteins in the cell membrane: Integral building block of life. protein, Peripheral protein (without this, plasma membrane will tear apart)  Cytoplasm – the area between the plasma membrane and nucleus, it is where most metabolic reactions/ activities take place. It contains many structures called Organelles. - The fluid in cytoplasm is called Cytosol Organelles  Endoplasmic Reticulum – complex system or network of interconnected membranes, canals, or channels. Connected to cell membrane, nuclear membrane, and organelles. - Function – Transport System PARTS OF A CELL - There are two types, Smooth ER, Rough ER  Nucleus – directs the activities of a cell; - Smooth ER – lipid synthesis Contains genetic materials; Inner part of the - Rough ER – protein synthesis cell - Rough ER has ribosomes (for protein - DNA production) - Genes (smallest genetic information; - Process: Nucleus signal to ER> mRNA 20,000 genes per chromosome) will find Amino Acids > Cytoplasm > - Chromosomes tRNA in cytoplasm will deliver 22 amino - Nucleus is also called “a little nut” acids > rough ER > ribosome=protein - The fluid in Nucleus is called generation nucleoplasm - Nucleolus – small dense structures  Golgi apparatus (BODIES) – series of flattened, within nucleus, made of proteins and membranous sacs near the nucleus RNA - Function – refining, packaging, delivery - Chromatin – loosely coiled fibers in the of proteins nucleoplasm; forms chromosomes during cell production Human Anatomy and Physiology 111 PRELIMS – REVIEWER Josh Ng | BS Radtech | 1-Y1-1 _________________________________________________________________________________________________ PARTS OF A CELL THE LIFE CYCLE OF A CELL  Mitochondria – the power house of the cell  All cells undergo mitosis except reproductive - Function – where chemical energy (food cells substances) is transformed into a useable form – molecules of ATP PHASES OF MITOSIS (adenosine triphosphate) that are like  Interphase – cell is in a resting state, growth “packets” of energy occurs and DNA makes a copy of itself  Cellular Respiration – the process of releasing/ - G1 phase transforming the energy from food involves - S phase OXYGEN - G2 phase - Uncharged molecules can penetrate the  Prophase – chromatin condenses and becomes cell membrane (Oxygen, CO2) visible as chromosomes  Lysosomes – quite variable in size and shape; - Nuclear membrane dissolves Contain powerful digesting enzymes that - Spindle forms and centrioles migrate to breakdown and destroy foreign particles, the poles microorganisms, damaged or worn out cells, - Nuclear membrane dissolves and cell parts  Metaphase – equatorial grouping phase - Suicide bag or demolition crew - Chromosomes line up along the equator - acid hydrolases  Anaphase – individual chromatids separate MOVEMENT OF SUBSTANCES – CELL MEMBRANE  Telophase – nuclear membrane reforms - Spindle disappears  Diffusion – molecules move spontaneously from - Last phase an area of higher concentration to an area of  Cytokinesis – dumbbell formation lower concentration - The cytoplasm (and hence the whole - No cellular energy used cell) separates  Facilitated Diffusion – molecules diffuse through New cells are called daughter cells a membrane by means of a carrier molecule transports MEIOSIS OR SEX CELL DIVISION - Requires no energy = passive transport  Interphase  Osmosis – the diffusion of water through a  Prophase I selectively permeable membrane  Metaphase I  ACTIVE TRANSPORT – molecules are moved  Anaphase I against the concentration gradient. This  Telophase I requires the use of cellular energy, also usually  Prophase II involves a carrier molecule  Metaphase II - Exocytosis – movement or transport of  Anapahase II particles outside the cell  Telophase II - Endocytosis – movement or transport of particles inside the cell - Pinocytosis – cell drinking - Phagocytosis – solid substance taken inside the cell, cell eating THE LIFE CYCLE OF A CELL  Mitosis – is the series of events during which the replicated DNA of the original cell is parceled out into two new cells, culminating in the division of the nucleus Human Anatomy and Physiology 111 PRELIMS – REVIEWER Josh Ng | BS Radtech | 1-Y1-1 _________________________________________________________________________________________________ EPITHELIUM TISSUES Glandular epithelium – makes up the secreting What is Histology? – Study of tissues of the human portion of glands such as the thyroid gland, adrenal body glands, and sweat glands. Pathologist – physician who specialized in - Glandular epithelium – secrete laboratory studies of cells and tissues substance into bloodstream (endocrine Old French word meaning “to weave” glands) or into ducts (exocrine glands) - It is a group of cells that usually have a - Mesocrine – Gastrointestinal tract, common origin Pancreas - May be hard, semi solid, or even liquid - Apocrine – mammary gland in their consistency, a range exemplified - Halocrine = face, secretion of sebum by bone, fat, and blood - Simple cuboidal and columnar – - Vary tremendously with respect to the absorption and secretion; kidney kinds of cells present, how the cells are tubules, surface of ovaries arranged, and the types of fibers present, if any. BASED ON ARRANGEMENT OF LAYERS 4 MAIN CATEGORIES OF TISSUES IN THE HUMAN BODY  Simple epithelium – single layer - Functions – diffusion, osmosis, filtration,  Epithelium – tissue that covers other structures secretion, or absorption therefore one side is always exposed to the - Secretion; production and release of outside ( which could still be inside of the body) substances, Absorption; intake of fluids - Cover body surfaces and line hollow  Pseudostratified epithelium – appears to have organs, body cavities, ducts; they also multiple layers of cells because the cell nuclei form glands lie at different levels - Cells arrange in continuous sheets,  Stratified epithelium – two or more layers closely packed, tightly held together - Protect underlying tissues in locations - Covering/ protection where there is considerable wear and - Does not have blood supply tear STRUCTURE OF EPITHELIAL TISSUES - Apical (free) surface – receives cell BASED ON SHAPES secretions; they may or may not contain  According to shape; Squamous looks like egg; cilia or microvilli plate like – scale like; squama; disk-shaped - Lateral surface – contains the cell nucleus, Cuboidal – cube; spherical nucleus, junctions Columnar – rectangle; oval nucleus - Basal surface – deepest; adhere to extracellular matrix, such as the  According to layers; Simple – single/ one layer, basement membrane Stratified – two or more layers/ double layer  Transitional epithelial tissue – urinary bladder, TYPES OF EPITHELIAL TISSUES stretchable and for protection Covering and lining epithelium – forms the outer covering of the skin and some internal organs  Connective – protection and support - It also forms the inner lining of blood - Most abundant tissue in the body vessels, ducts, and body cavities, and - Consist of special cells called fibroblasts the interior of the respiratory, digestive, surrounded by a matrix urinary, and reproductive systems - Protect and support the body and its - Glomerulus – main filtering unit of organs. kidney; gas exchange, nutrients - Binds organs together, store energy exchange, filtration – formed by a reserves as fat, and help provide the network of capillaries body with immunity to disease-causing organisms Human Anatomy and Physiology 111 PRELIMS – REVIEWER Josh Ng | BS Radtech | 1-Y1-1 _________________________________________________________________________________________________ CONNECTIVE TISSUE CONNECTIVE TISSUE CONNECTIVE TISSUE CELLS Elastic Connective tissue – more elastic fibers than - Fibroblasts – star-shaped cell, secrete collagen fibers protein into matrix producing fibers - Found in the attachment between - Macrophages – act as scavengers vertebrae and in the walls of some (phagocytosis); wondering or fixed hollow internal organ - Fixed – particular tissue; wondering – SPECIAL CATEGORIES OF CONNECTIVE with ability to move TISSUE - Plasma cells – develop from WBC Cartilage - Is rigid and strong so it can provide called B lymphocyte support and protection. It also forms a structural - Mast cells – release heparin model for developing bones. (anticoagulant), histamine (promote - No direct blood supply, nutrients through inflammatory reaction) diffusion - Adipocytes – fat cells Hyaline Cartilage – found at the ends of the bones, - WBC; neutrophils gather at sites of soft part of the nose, larynx, and trachea infection; eosinophils migrate to sites of - Serves model for bone growth parasitic invasions and allergic - 2nd most flexible responses Elastic Cartilage – found in larynx and the ear PROTEIN FIBERS - With elastic fibers together with Elastic – composed of bundles of elastin (elastic chondrocytes on lacunae protein) - Most flexible - Appear yellow in color Fibrocartilage – row of chondrocytes - Found in vocal cords, air passages of - Found in intervertebral disc. respiratory system - Least flexible Reticular – thin collagenous fibers that form a Bone – most rigid of connective tissues supporting network - Highly organized unit called haversian Collagen fibers – very strong and resist pulling system forces, but they are not stiff, which allows tissue Blood – Consist of cells suspended in matrix of fluid flexibility called plasma MUSCLE TISSUE MAJOR TYPES OF CONNECTIVE TISSUE Loose Connective tissue – composed of fibroblast, Muscular tissue – composed of cells specialized for matrix and some fibers contraction and generation of force; for movement - Found in dermis and subcutaneous  Skeletal Muscle – striated; Caused by layer of skin as well as surrounding density of overlapping protein filament muscle called actin and myosin - Called fascia (membrane) - Voluntary movement; locomotion; Adipose Connective tissue – Lipid (fat called manipulation of the environment; facial adipocytes) expression - Store energy - Long, cylindrical, multinucleate cells; - Found in some organs and joints obvious striations - Cushion for shock absorption - Attached to bones or occasionally to - Insulated the body skin Reticular Connective tissue – thin supportive  Cardiac Muscle – found only in the wall of network of collagen fibers the heart; has unique structures called - Walls of the liver, spleen, and lymphatic intercalated disc system - As it contracts, propels blood into the Dense Connective tissue – thick collagenous fibers circulation; involuntary control - Found in ligaments and tendons - Has poor blood supply (didn’t heal well) Human Anatomy and Physiology 111 PRELIMS – REVIEWER Josh Ng | BS Radtech | 1-Y1-1 _________________________________________________________________________________________________ CELL JUNCTIONS MUSCLE TISSUE - Branching, striated, generally - Consist of web-like strands of uninucleate cells that interdigitate at transmembrane proteins that fuse specialized junctions together the outer surfaces of adjacent - Located on the walls of the heart plasma membranes to seal off  Smooth Muscle – non-striated; passageways between adjacents cells; myofilaments are not as dense as in cardian stomach, intestines, and urinary bladder and skeletal muscle. - Inhibit the passage of substance to - Found in the gastrointestinal system and prevent the contents from leaking into arteries blood or other tissues - Propels substances or objects along  Adherens Junctions – contain plaque, a dense internal passageways; involuntary layer of proteins on the inside of the plasma control membrane that attaches both to membrane - Spindle-shaped cells with central nuclei; proteins and to microfilaments of the no striations; cells arrange closely to Cytoskeleton form sheets - Cadherins- transmembrane - Mostly in the walls of hollow organs glycoproteins that joins the cells - Forms extensive zones called adhesion belts because they encircle the cell similar to a belt - Helps epithelial surfaces resist NERVOUS TISSUE separation during various contractile activities; when the food moves through  Nervous tissue – detects changes in a variety of the intestines conditions inside and outside the body and  Desmosomes – contains plaque and have responds by generating electrical signals called cadherins that extend into the intercellular nerve action potentials (nerve impulses) that space to attach cells to one another activate muscular contractions and glandular - The plaque of desmosomes does not secretions attach to microfilaments - The cells of nervous system are of two - It attaches to elements of cytoskeleton types; nerve cells or neurons and known as intermediate filaments, which neuroglia consist of keratin - For control  Hemidesmosomes – resemble desmosomes,  Neurons – consist of cell body with a central but do not link adjacent cells nucleus and two sets of processes, an axon - The transmembrane glycoproteins are and dendrites integrins rather than cadherins - Two types of neurons; - Anchor cells not to each other but to the - Sensory neurons – convey impulses to basement ceiling the skin or other structures to the spinal  Gap Junctions – allows the cells in a tissue to cord and brain (receptor) communicate with one another - Motor neurons – from brain and spinal - Membrane proteins called connexcins cord to the muscles and glands, form tiny fluid-filled tunnels called initiating contraction or secretion connexons that connect neighboring (effectors) cells - Enable nerve or muscle impulses to CELL JUNCTIONS spread rapidly among cells are contact points between the plasma membranes and tissue cells.  Tight Junctions – also known as Occluding Junctions or Zonula Occludens Human Anatomy and Physiology 111 PRELIMS – REVIEWER Josh Ng | BS Radtech | 1-Y1-1 _________________________________________________________________________________________________ RANDOM STUFFS TINAMAD NA AKO AYUSIN - Stratified cuboidal and columnar – protection; sweat glands, mammary glands - In columnar, there is cilia = hair-liked for transportation - Simple squamous epithelial – diffusion/filtration; wall of capillaries, alveoli, lympathic vessels - Stratified squamous protection - Keratinized – it builds up corneocytes (epidermis of skin) - Non – keratinized – it doesn’t build up corneocytes (mouth, vagina, esophagus) - Simple one layer - Stratified two or more layers - Axon is a single, thin, cylindrical process that may be very long; output portion of a neuron - Neuroglia – do not generate or conduct nerve impulses, these cells do have many important supportive functions. ANNOTATION SPACE: