Anatomy and Physiology Lecture Slides PDF

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY Valerie S. Huiso, RTRP, MHA (c) ANATOMY-the study of the structures of the body The word “anatomy” comes from the Greek words “ana,” meaning “up,” and “tome,” meaning “a cutting.” Traditionally, studies of anatomy have involved cutting up, or dissecting, organisms. PHYSIOL...

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY Valerie S. Huiso, RTRP, MHA (c) ANATOMY-the study of the structures of the body The word “anatomy” comes from the Greek words “ana,” meaning “up,” and “tome,” meaning “a cutting.” Traditionally, studies of anatomy have involved cutting up, or dissecting, organisms. PHYSIOLOGY-the branch of biology dealing with the functions and activities of living organisms and their parts, including all physical and chemical processes. BRANCHES OF ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY GROSS ANATOMY refers to macroscopic study of the whole body…things that can be seen with the naked eye. Within Gross anatomy are REGIONAL ANATOMY which studies the anatomy of body parts (the head, the leg, etc), SYSTEMIC ANATOMY which studies body systems, and SURFACE ANATOMY which studies what is underneath the surface. Surface anatomy (also known as superficial anatomy and visual anatomy) is the study of the external features of the body. It deals with anatomical features that can be studied by sight, without dissection. It is a branch of gross anatomy, along with endoscopic and radiological anatomy.  MICROSCOPIC ANATOMY refers to the study of anatomy using a microscope. CYTOLOGY is the study of cells and HISTOLOGY is the study of tissues (tissues are groups of cells). DEVELOPMENTAL ANATOMY studies where things come from, how they develop. This area includes EMBRYOLOGY (the study of embryonic development) SPECIALIZED ANATOMY areas include PATHOLOGICAL which is the study of disease, RADIOGRAPHIC which studies how anatomy relates to the radiographic techniques, and SURGICAL ANATOMY. I. HUMAN ORGAN 6 Levels of Organization for Human Body 1. Chemical – involves how atoms interact and combine into molecules 2. Cell – basic structural and functional units of organisms 3. Tissue – a group of similar cells and the material surrounding them 4. Organ – composed of two or more tissue types that together perform one or more common functions 5. Organ System – a group of organs classified as a unit because of a common function or set of functions 6. Organism – a complex of organ systems that are mutually dependent upon one another  6 Essential Characteristics of Life 1. Organization – refers to a specific relationship of the many individual parts of an organism. 2. Metabolism – the ability to use energy to perform vital functions, such as growth, movement, and reproduction. 3. Responsiveness – the ability of an organism to sense changes in the environment and make the adjustments that help maintain its life. 4. Growth – refers to an increase in size of all or part of the organism 5. Development – includes the changes an organism undergoes through time 6. Reproduction – the formation of new cells or new organisms. HOMEOSTASIS (EQUILIBRIUM/BALANCE) Homeostasis AKA “Staying the Same” Homeostasis is the ability of the body to maintain a stable set of internal conditions, such as temperature. It is also referred to as dynamic equilibrium because it doesn’t adhere to one strict notion of “normal", yet keeps the body constantly moving toward “normal”, within a close range.  Mechanisms of Homeostasis The RECEPTOR provides data. It recognizes the stimulus or change in the environment and reports the value, for example…the temperature is 99.2 The CONTROL CENTER decides what to do with this information. An example of a control center is the hypothalamus. It compares the receptor input against the body’s set point and decides what adjustments to make (if any). The EFFECTOR carries out the plan. It is the means of altering organism’s function according to control center output.  2 Types of Feedback in Homeostasis In NEGATIVE FEEDBACK the effector’s response opposes or negates the movement of original stimulus. If the original stimulus is saying that it is too cold, then the effector’s response will negate the cold. It works to returns organism to equilibrium and is the most common type of feedback. In POSITIVE FEEDBACK the effector’s response enhances the original stimulus. In this case, the organism temporarily moved further from equilibrium. One example is childbirth, where contractions get progressively stronger until the baby is born. This type of feedback occurs infrequently. It initiates a set of self-perpetuating events and also includes an event to break the cycle.  LANGUAGE OF ANATOMY ANATOMICAL POSITION- or standard anatomical position, refers to the specific body orientation used when describing an individual’s anatomy. Standard anatomical position of the human body consists of the body standing upright and facing forward with the legs parallel to one another. The upper limbs, or arms, hang at either side and the palms face forward. The acronym “SOFT,” which stands for Sagittal, Oblique, Frontal, and Transverse, is an easy method to memorize the four primary types of body planes.  BODY PLANES The anatomical planes are hypothetical planes used to describe the location of structures in human anatomy. Frontal Plane or Coronal Plane: Imagine a vertical plane that runs through the center of your body from side to side. This plane divides the body into front (anterior) and back (posterior) regions. Lateral Plane or Sagittal Plane: Imagine a vertical plane that runs through your body from front to back or back to front. This plane divides the body into right and left regions. Median or Midsagittal Plane: Sagittal plane that divides the body into equal right and left regions. Parasagittal Plane: Sagittal plane that divides the body into unequal right and left regions.  Transverse Plane: Imagine a horizontal plane that runs through the midsection of your body. This plane divides the body into upper (superior) and lower (inferior) regions. Oblique plane is a plane that can be any angle other than horizontal or vertical. In actuality, the word “oblique” denotes “not parallel” or “at a right angle.” The phrase “obliques are odd angles” is a good way to remember this. You could also consider your oblique muscles. These muscles are placed laterally to your abdominal muscles and come down at an angle. BODY CAVITIES A body cavity is a fluid-filled space inside the body that holds and protects internal organs. Human body cavities are separated by membranes and other structures. The two largest human body cavities are the ventral cavity and the dorsal cavity. These two body cavities (dorsal and ventral cavity) are subdivided into smaller body cavities. Both the dorsal and ventral cavities and their subdivisions are shown Dorsal Cavity The dorsal cavity is at the posterior, or back, of the body, including both the head and the back of the trunk. The dorsal cavity is subdivided into the cranial and spinal cavities. The cranial cavity fills most of the upper part of the skull and contains the brain. The spinal cavity is a very long, narrow cavity inside the vertebral column. It runs the length of the trunk and contains the spinal cord. Ventral Cavity The ventral cavity is at the anterior, or front, of the trunk. Organs contained within this body cavity include the lungs, heart, stomach, intestines, and reproductive organs. The ventral cavity is subdivided into the thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities. The thoracic cavity fills the chest and is subdivided into two pleural cavities and the pericardial cavity. The pleural cavities hold the lungs, and the pericardial cavity holds the heart. The abdominopelvic cavity fills the lower half of the trunk and is subdivided into the abdominal cavity and the pelvic cavity. The abdominal cavity holds digestive organs and the kidneys, and the pelvic cavity holds reproductive organs and organs of excretion.  BODY DIRECTIONS, SECTIONS AND REGIONAL TERMS Directional terms describe the relationships of anatomical structures. Anatomical Directional Terms Anterior: In front of, front Axial: Around a central axis Bilateral: Involving both sides of the body Caudal: Toward the back, toward the tail Contralateral: On opposite sides of the body Distal: Away from, farther from the origin Dorsal: Near the upper surface, toward the back Inferior: Below, under Intermediate: Between two structures Ipsilateral: On the same side of the body Lateral: Toward the side, away from the mid-line Medial: Toward the mid-line, middle, away from the side Parietal: Relating to a body cavity wall Posterior: After, behind, following, toward the rear Proximal: Near, closer to the origin Rostral: Toward the front Superior: Above, over Unilateral: Involving one side of the body Ventral: Toward the bottom, toward the belly Visceral: Relating to organs within body cavities Superior / Inferior = Above / Below Ex: The head is superior to the chest The umbilical region is inferior to the neck Anterior / Posterior = Front / Back (also Ventral / Dorsal) Ex: The heart is anterior to the spine The heart is posterior to the breastbone Medial / Lateral = Toward midline / Toward side Ex: The heart is medial to the arm The arms are lateral to the heart Superficial / Deep = Toward surface / Away from surface (inward) Ex: The epidermis is superficial to the skeleton The lungs are deep to the skin Proximal / Distal = Closer to midline or point of region / Farther away Ex: The elbow is proximal to the wrist The wrist is distal to the shoulder  DIRECTIONAL TERMS ABDUCTION – movement of a part away from the central axis of the body ADDUCTION – movement of a part towards the central axis of the body 20  DIRECTIONAL TERMS EXTENSION – straightening of a joint FLEX – act of bending 21  DIRECTIONAL TERMS HYPEREXTENSION – forced or excessive extension of a limb joints HYPERFLEXION – forced overflexion of a limb or joints 22  DIRECTIONAL TERMS PRONATION – rotation of the forearm so that the palm is facing down SUPINATION – rotation of the forearm so that the palm is facing up and in the anatomic position ROTATION – turning or rotating of the body part around its axis CIRCUMDUCTION – circular movement of 23  DIRECTIONAL TERMS DORSIFLEXION – refers to flexion at the ankle, so that the foot points more superiorly. PLANTARFLEXION – refers extension at the ankle, so that the foot points inferiorly. EVERT – outward turning of the foot at the ankle INVERT – inward turning of the foot at 24 BODY POSITIONS BODY POSITIONS DIRECTIIONAL TERMS Regional Terms Regional terms designate specific areas of the body, such as the nasal region, and occipital region. BODY QUADRANTS AND REGIONS The abdominopelvic cavity can be subdivided into four quadrants and nine areas. The quadrants are labeled by location: the right upper, right lower, left upper, and left lower quadrants. The nine regions are smaller than the four abdominopelvic quadrants and include the right hypochondriac, right lumbar, right illiac, epigastric, umbilical, hypogastric (or pubic), left hypochondriac, left lumbar, and left illiac divisions. The perineum is sometimes considered to be the tenth division. Left upper quadrant: The left upper quadrant is the location of the left portion of the liver, the larger portion of the stomach, the pancreas, left kidney, spleen, portions of the transverse and descending colon, and parts of the small intestine. Right upper quadrant: The right upper quadrant contains the right portion of the liver, gallbladder, right kidney, a small portion of the stomach, portions of the ascending and transverse colon, and parts of the small intestine. Left lower quadrant: The left lower quadrant houses the majority of the small intestine, some of the large intestine, the left female reproductive organs, and the left ureter. Right lower quadrant: In the right lower quadrant sits the cecum, appendix, part of the small intestines, the right female reproductive organs, and the right ureter.  Abdominal Nine Divisions Right Hypochondriac. The right hypochondriac region contains the right portion of the liver, the gallbladder, the right kidney, and parts of the small intestine. Left Hypochondriac. The left hypochondriac region contains part of the spleen, the left kidney, part of the stomach, the pancreas, and parts of the colon. Epigastric. The epigastric (above stomach) region contains the majority of the stomach, part of the liver, part of the pancreas, part of the duodenum, part of the spleen, and the adrenal glands. This region pushes out when the diaphragm contracts during breathing. Right Lumbar. The right lumbar region consists of the gallbladder, the right kidney, part of the liver, and the ascending colon. Left Lumbar. The left lumbar region consists of the descending colon, the left kidney, and part of the spleen. Umbilical. The umbilical region contains the umbilicus (navel), and many parts of the small intestine, such as part of the duodenum, the jejunum, and the illeum. It also contains the transverse colon (the section between the ascending and descending colons) and the bottom portions of both the left and right kidney. Right Iliac. The right iliac region contains the appendix, cecum, and the right iliac fossa. It is also commonly referred to as the right inguinal region. Pain in this area is generally associated with appendicitis. Left Iliac. The left illiac region contains part of the descending colon, the sigmoid colon, and the left illiac fossa. It is also commonly called the left inguinal region. Hypogastric. The hypogastric region (below the stomach) contains the organs around the pubic bone. These include bladder, part of the sigmoid colon, the anus, and many organs of the reproductive system, such as the uterus and ovaries in females and the prostate in males. CELLULAR ORGANIZATION- refers to the components of the cell and how they are arranged within it. Levels of Cellular Organization Cell Membrane: This membrane works as a partially permeable barrier, permitting very few particles through it while enclosing most of the naturally formed chemicals within the cell. Electron microscopic inspections of the cell membranes are responsible for the growth of the bilayer model of lipids. Cell Walls: Not every living being has a cell wall, particularly animals and animal-like protistans. Bacteria consist of cell walls comprising the chemical peptidoglycan. Cellulose, an indigestible (to humans anyhow) polysaccharide is the most common chemical in the primary cell wall of the plant. Some of the plant cells similarly have lignin and additional chemicals implanted within the secondary cell walls. Nucleus: The nucleus is found only in eukaryotic cells. It is the site for most of the nucleic acids made by the cells, such as RNA and DNA. DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid), is the bodily carrier of legacy and except for plastid and mitochondrial DNA, every DNA is limited to the nucleus. RNA (Ribonucleic acid), is molded in the nucleus by means of the DNA-based sequence as a prototype. RNA travels out within the cytoplasm where it helps in the assemblage of proteins. The nucleolus is a part of the nucleus where ribosomes are fabricated. Vacuoles and vesicles: Vacuoles are organelles that have a single membrane and are situated inside the cell. The single membrane is characterized in plant cells as a tonoplast. A lot of creatures use vacuoles as storage areas. Vesicles are smaller than vacuoles and function in carrying materials both inside and outside of the cell. Ribosomes: Ribosomes are the spots of protein formation. They are not bounded by the membrane and therefore are found equally in eukaryotes and prokaryotes. Eukaryotic ribosomes are a touch bigger than prokaryotic cells. Anatomically, the ribosome contains a minor and major sub-unit. Biochemically, the ribosome contains rRNA (ribosomal RNA) and some 50 structural proteins. Endoplasmic reticulum: It is a network of interlinked membranes that assist a function concerning protein transport and synthesis. Rough ER (Rough endoplasmic reticulum) is so-called due to its rough exterior owing to the several ribosomes that are found along with the ER. Rough ER attaches to the nuclear envelope from where the emissary RNA (mRNA) that is the outline for proteins journeys to the ribosomes. Smooth ER does not have ribosomes. Golgi apparatus and Dictyosomes: Golgi Complexes, are compressed stacks of membrane-bound pouches. Camillo Golgi, an Italian biologist, revealed these structures in the 1890s, though their exact role in the cell was not decrypted. Golgi functions as a packaging part and modifies the vesicles which are produced by the rough endoplasmic reticulum. The new membrane is developed in various cisternae (layers) of the Golgi. Lysosomes: They are comparatively big vesicles fashioned by the Golgi. They comprise hydrolytic enzymes that can lyse the cell. Contents of the lysosome come into use in the extracellular breakdown of materials. Mitochondria: They contain their own DNA and are thought to represent organisms like bacteria that are incorporated into eukaryotic cells. Their utility is as the site of energy discharge and ATP formation (by the process of chemiosmosis). The mitochondrion has been labelled as the powerhouse of the cell. The Mitochondria have two membranous sheaths. The inner cell membrane folds into a sequence of cristae which are the planes on which ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate) is created. The matrix is the zone of the mitochondrion that is surrounded by the internal mitochondrial membrane. Mitochondrial DNA and Ribosomes are found in the matrix. Plastids: They are organelles that exist in plants and photosynthetic eukaryotes and are bounded by the membrane. Leucoplasts also recognized as amyloplasts store starch and sometimes oils or protein. Chromoplasts keep pigments that are associated with the bright colors of flowers or fruits.  TISSUE LEVEL OF ORGANIZATION 1. Epithelial tissues provide the body’s first line of protection from physical, chemical, and biological wear and tear. The cells of an epithelium act as gatekeepers of the body controlling permeability and allowing selective transfer of materials across a physical barrier. Some examples of epithelial tissue include: The outer layer of your skin (epidermis). The lining of your intestines. The lining of your respiratory tract. The lining of your abdominal cavity. our sweat glands. 2. Muscle tissue is characterized by properties that allow movement. Muscle tissue is classified into three types according to structure and function: skeletal, cardiac, and smooth. A. MUSCLE TISSUE B. SMOOTH TISSUE C. CARDIAC TISSUE Skeletal muscle is attached to bones and its contraction makes possible locomotion, facial expressions, posture, and other voluntary movements of the body. Forty percent of your body mass is made up of skeletal muscle. Skeletal muscles generate heat as a byproduct of their contraction and thus participate in thermal homeostasis. Cardiac muscle forms the contractile walls of the heart. The cells of cardiac muscle, known as cardiomyocytes, also appear striated under the microscope. Unlike skeletal muscle fibers, cardiomyocytes are single cells typically with a single centrally located nucleus. A principal characteristic of cardiomyocytes is that they contract on their own intrinsic rhythms without any external stimulation; they are described as autorhythmic. Smooth muscle tissue contraction is responsible for involuntary movements in the internal organs. It forms the contractile component of the digestive, urinary, and reproductive systems as well as the airways and arteries. Smooth muscle is also present in the eyes, where it functions to change the size of the iris and alter the shape of the lens; and in the skin where it causes hair to stand erect in response to cold temperature or fear. Each cell is spindle shaped with a single nucleus and no visible striations 3. Connective tissues provide the structural framework of the human body. Connective tissues come in a vast variety of forms, yet they typically have in common three characteristic components: cells, large amounts of amorphous ground substance, and protein fibers. The characteristics of these three components will ultimately determine the classifications and functions of the different types of connective tissues. suited to their role as conducting cells, with three main parts. The cell body includes most of the cytoplasm, the organelles, and the nucleus. Nervous tissue is characterized as being excitable Dendrites branch off the cell body and appear and capable of sending and receiving as thin extensions. A long “tail,” the axon, electrochemical signals that provide the body with information. Two main classes of cells make extends from the neuron body and can be up nervous tissue: the neuron and neuroglia. wrapped in an insulating layer known as myelin, Neurons propagate information via which is formed by accessory cells. The electrochemical impulses, called action potentials, synapse is the gap between nerve cells, or which are biochemically linked to the release of between a nerve cell and its target, for example, chemical signals. Neuroglia play an essential role a muscle or a gland, across which the impulse in supporting neurons and modulating their is transmitted by chemical compounds known information propagation. as neurotransmitters. INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM  Consist of the skin & accessory structures, such as hairs, nails & glands. It covers outside of the body. FUNCTIONS OF INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM: Protection Sensation Vitamin D production Temperature Regulation Excretion  Skin – the largest organ of the body forms the body’s outer covering and forms a barrier to protect the body from chemicals, disease, UV light, and physical damage Dermis – layer of dense connective tissue Collagen & elastic fibers are responsible for the structural strength is well supplied with blood vessels, cutaneous glands, and nerve endings. The hair follicles and nail roots are embedded in the dermis. Dermal papillae - upper part of the dermis  Epidermis – stratified squamous epithelium Deepest layers, cells are produced by mitosis, -The outermost cells protects the cells underneath & deeper replicating cells replace cell lost from the surface. Keratinization – process when the cell change shape and chemical composition; filled with keratin Cells of the Epidermis Stem Cells Keratinocytes Melanocytes Tactile Cells Dendritic Cells Stem Cells - undifferentiated cells that divide and give rise to the keratinocytes Keratinocytes - great majority of epidermal cells. They are named for their role in synthesizing keratin. Melanocytes- occur only in the stratum basale, amid the stem cells and deepest keratinocytes. They synthesize the brown to black pigment melanin. Tactile Cells - relatively few in number, are receptors for touch. The tactile cell and its nerve fiber are collectively called a tactile disc. Dendritic Cells - found in two layers of the epidermis called the stratum spinosum and stratum granulosum LAYERS OF THE EPIDERMIS Stratum Basale Stratum Spinosum Stratum Granulosum Stratum Lucidum Stratum Corneum  Hypodermis - Beneath the skin is a layer - Subcutaneous tissue Loose connective tissue that contains about half the body’s stored fat Fat – function as padding & insulation and responsible for appearance Skin Color Melanin – group of pigments responsible for skin, hair, and eye color. Produced by melanocytes Two forms of Melanin Eumelanin – brownish black Pheomelanin - reddish yellow sulfur-containing pigment Hemoglobin – red pigment of blood, imparts reddish to pinkish hues as blood vessels show through the skin. Accessory Skin Structures Hair – one of the characteristics common to all mammals.; thick & covers most of the body Shaft – protrudes above the surface of the skin. Root & hair bulb – are below the surface Cortex – hair ( hard) Medulla - surface rounds a softer center Cuticle – a single layer of overlapping cells that holds the hair in the hair follicle. Hair Follicle – extension of the epidermis deep into the dermis & it can play an important role in tissue repair.  Muscles – associated with hair follicle( smooth muscle cell) Arrector Pili – cause the hair to become more perpendicular to the skin surface, or to “stand on end” ; produce a raised area of skin ( goose flesh) Glands Two major glands Sebaceous Glands – simple, branched acinar glands Sebum – oily, white substance rich in lipids Sweat Glands – Merocrine & Apocrine Merocrine – are simple, coiled tubular glands located almost every part of the skin and are most numerous in the palms & soles. Apocrine – simple, coiled, tubular glands that produce a thick secretion rich inorganic substances.  Nails - Distal ends of the digits of humans - Thin plate, consisting of layers of dead stratum corneum cells that contain a very hard type of keratin - Nail body - Nail Matrix - Nail Root - Nail Bed - Eponychium/Cuticle