ANA CA Notes PDF

L1 1. 5 parts of Principal body regions: Head Neck Trunk: thorax & abdomen. Upper limb (extremity) Lower limb (extremity) 2. Terms of Movements Flexion/Extension Abduction/Adduction Rotation/Circumduction Pronation/Supination Inversion/Eve...

L1 1. 5 parts of Principal body regions: Head Neck Trunk: thorax & abdomen. Upper limb (extremity) Lower limb (extremity) 2. Terms of Movements Flexion/Extension Abduction/Adduction Rotation/Circumduction Pronation/Supination Inversion/Eversion 3. Directional Terms Anterior (ventral)/Posterior (dorsal) Superior/Inferior Medial/Lateral Proximal/Distal Proximal: Towards the main mass of the body (e.g., the knee is proximal to the foot). Distal: Away from the main mass of the body (e.g., the hand is distal to the elbow). Superficial/Deep Superficial: Toward the surface (e.g., the skin is superficial to the muscles). Deep: Away from the surface (e.g., the brain is deep to the cranium). Visceral/Parietal Ipsilateral/Contralateral Supine/Prone L2 1. 9 Types of Epithelial Tissue Simple Squamous Epithelium Structure: 1 layer of flat cells. Location: Lining of blood vessels, alveoli in lungs. Function: Diffusion, filtration, protection. Stratified Squamous Epithelium Structure: Multiple layers, outer cells flattened. Location: Skin (keratinized), mouth/esophagus (non-keratinized). Function: Protection from drying and abrasion. Simple Cuboidal Epithelium Structure: 1 layer of cube-shaped cells. Location: Kidney tubules, glands, ovary surfaces. Function: Secretion, absorption. Stratified Cuboidal Epithelium Structure: Multiple layers of cube-shaped cells. Location: Sweat gland ducts, salivary gland ducts. Function: Secretion, absorption, protection. Simple Columnar Epithelium Structure: 1 layer of elongated cells. Location: Digestive organs, uterine tubes. Function: Secretion, absorption. Stratified Columnar Epithelium Structure: Multiple layers of elongated cells. Location: Male urethra, pharynx. Function: Protection, secretion. Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelium Structure: Appears layered but is a single layer. Location: Respiratory tract. Function: Secretion, moving mucus with cilia. Transitional Epithelium Structure: Layers change shape depending on tension. Location: Urinary bladder, ureters. Function: Allows stretching. 2. Goblet Cells Description: Specialized cells in columnar epithelium. Function: Secrete mucus to lubricate surfaces. Location: Respiratory and digestive tracts. 3. Connective Tissue (Tendon vs. Ligament) Tendon: ◦ Connects muscle to bone. ◦ Composed of dense regular connective tissue. ◦ Provides strong, tensile strength. Ligament: ◦ Connects bone to bone. ◦ Composed of dense regular connective tissue with more elastic fibers. ◦ Offers flexibility and stability. 4. Muscular Tissue 1. Skeletal Muscle: ◦ Structure: Long, cylindrical, striated fibers, multiple nuclei. ◦ Location: Attached to skeleton. ◦ Control: Voluntary. ◦ Function: Body movement. 2. Smooth Muscle: ◦ Structure: Spindle-shaped, non-striated, single nucleus. ◦ Location: Walls of hollow organs (intestines, bladder). ◦ Control: Involuntary. ◦ Function: Moves substances through organs. 3. Cardiac Muscle: ◦ Structure: Branched, striated fibers, single nucleus, intercalated discs. ◦ Location: Heart. ◦ Control: Involuntary. ◦ Function: Pumps blood. Key Differences: Type Striated? Control Location Skeletal Yes Voluntary Skeleton Smooth No Involuntary Organs, vessels Cardiac Yes Involuntary Heart 5. Extracellular Junctions 1. Gap Junctions: ◦ Description: Plasma membrane channels join to allow substance exchange. ◦ Function: Communication between cells. ◦ Location: Cardiac and smooth muscle. ◦ 2. Adhesion Junctions: ◦ Description: Adjacent plasma membranes held by filaments. ◦ Function: Provides flexibility. ◦ Location: Skin cells. L3 1. General Function of Skin Protection: Shields against trauma, UV radiation, and pathogens. Regulation: Controls water loss and body temperature. Sensory Input: Gathers information on touch, pressure, temperature, and pain. Excretion: Removes waste through sweat. Vitamin D Synthesis: Produces vitamin D under UV light exposure. 2. Five Layers of Epidermis Order (from deep to superficial): 1. Stratum Basale (Basal Layer): ▪ Characteristics: Single row of actively dividing cells. ▪ Specialized Cells: ▪ Keratinocytes: Produce keratin for waterproofing. ▪ Melanocytes: Synthesize melanin for UV protection. ▪ Langerhans Cells: Act as immune defenders. ▪ Merkel Cells: Function as sensory receptors. ▪ Location: Closest to dermis. 2. Stratum Spinosum (Spinous Layer): ▪ Characteristics: Spiny appearance due to keratin fibers. 3. Stratum Granulosum (Granular Layer): ▪ Characteristics: Flattened cells with keratohyalin granules. 4. Stratum Lucidum (only in thick skin): ▪ Characteristics: Transparent layer offering protection from friction. 5. Stratum Corneum (Cornified Layer): ▪ Characteristics: Tough, outermost layer; dead keratinized cells. ▪ Function: Prevents water loss and blocks pathogens. 3. Degrees of Burns First Degree: Affects only the epidermis; redness and pain, no blistering. Second Degree: Involves epidermis and part of the dermis; blistering and severe pain. Third Degree: Full-thickness burn; destroys entire skin layer; leathery appearance. Fourth Degree: Extends into tissues like muscles or bones. 4. Skin Color in High-Altitude Regions Reason for Darker Skin: ◦ High-altitude exposure results in thinner atmosphere with more UV rays. ◦ Increased melanin protects against UV damage and reduces skin cancer risk. 5. Albinism Description: A genetic disorder leading to defective melanin production. Characteristics: ◦ Pale skin, light hair, and increased sensitivity to sunlight. ◦ High susceptibility to burns and skin cancer. 6. Athlete’s Foot Cause: Fungal infection. Affected Areas: Commonly the toes and soles. Symptoms: Itching, scaling, and redness. 7. Skin Cancer: Melanoma Description: Malignant cancer arising from melanocytes. Characteristics: ◦ Unusual moles or dark, irregular spots. ◦ High risk in fair-skinned individuals with severe sunburn history. Impact: ◦ Can metastasize rapidly. ◦ Requires early detection for effective treatment. L4 1. Different Types of Cells in Bone 1. Osteoblasts: ◦ Function: Produce bone matrix and facilitate bone growth. ◦ Location: Found on the surface of bones. 2. Osteocytes: ◦ Function: Maintain bone tissue; derived from osteoblasts. ◦ Location: Embedded in the bone matrix. 3. Osteoclasts: ◦ Function: Break down bone tissue for remodeling and calcium release. ◦ Location: Found on bone surfaces and at sites of old, injured, or unneeded bone. 2. Examples of Appendicular Skeleton Upper Limbs: ◦ Humerus, radius, ulna, carpals, metacarpals, phalanges. Lower Limbs: ◦ Femur, tibia, fibula, tarsals, metatarsals, phalanges. Girdles: ◦ Pectoral girdle (clavicle and scapula). ◦ Pelvic girdle (ilium, ischium, pubis). 3. Regions of Vertebrae 1. Cervical Region: ◦ Includes 7 vertebrae (C1-C7). ◦ Supports the head and allows for neck movements. 2. Thoracic Region: ◦ Includes 12 vertebrae (T1-T12). ◦ Articulates with ribs for rib cage support. 3. Lumbar Region: ◦ Includes 5 vertebrae (L1-L5). ◦ Bears the most weight and provides flexibility and movement. 4. Sacral Region: ◦ Includes 5 fused vertebrae (S1-S5). ◦ Forms the sacrum, connecting the spine to the pelvis. 5. Coccygeal Region: ◦ Includes 3-5 fused vertebrae forming the coccyx (tailbone). 4. Gout Definition: A type of arthritis caused by the accumulation of uric acid crystals in joints. Common Sites: Big toe, knees, and ankles. Symptoms: ◦ Severe pain, redness, swelling, and heat in affected joints. Cause: ◦ High levels of uric acid in the blood due to diet, genetics, or kidney dysfunction. Management: ◦ Anti-inflammatory medications, dietary changes (avoidance of purine-rich foods), and maintaining hydration.