Verstaan van kwantitatiewe en kwalitatiewe navorsing in sielkunde PDF

Understanding quantitative and qualitative research in psychology / Verstaan van kwantitatiewe en kwalitatiewe navorsing in sielkunde Bourne, James and Wilson-Smith / Bourne, James en Wilson-Smith Chapter 22: Designing interviews and focus groups /...

Understanding quantitative and qualitative research in psychology / Verstaan van kwantitatiewe en kwalitatiewe navorsing in sielkunde Bourne, James and Wilson-Smith / Bourne, James en Wilson-Smith Chapter 22: Designing interviews and focus groups / Hoofstuk 22: Ontwerp van onderhoude en fokusgroepe Reasons for using interviews and focus groups Primary data collection – Exploring talk in action – Exploring experiences and processes Hypothesis or research question generation Measure development Understanding findings © Bourne et al, 2021 2  Redes vir die gebruik van onderhoude en fokusgroepe Primêre dataversameling – Ontginning van aktiewe diskoers ("talk in action") – Ontginning van ervarings en prosesse Skepping van hipoteses of navorsingsvrae Ontwikkeling van meetinstrumente Verstaan van bevindings © Bourne et al, 2021 3  Primary data collection Appropriate data collection method depends upon your research aims and the qualitative approach taken Interviews and focus groups can be used to collect data for qualitative and quantitative research May be used to collect data for just one part of a study, including within mixed-methods research © Bourne et al, 2021 4  Primêre dataversameling Toepaslike dataversamelingsmetode hang af van jou navorsingsoogmerke en die kwalitatiewe benadering wat gevolg word Onderhoude en fokusgroepe kan gebruik word om data vir kwalitatiewe en kwantitatiewe navorsing te versamel Kan gebruik word om data te versamel vir slegs een deel van 'n studie, insluitend binne gemengde metodes navorsing © Bourne et al, 2021 5  Levels of interview structure Structured Semi-structured Unstructured Question order Fixed Flexible Not set Wording Fixed Flexible Not set Changes to questions None Possible Very likely between interviews Participant responses Limited Open Open Participant questions No Yes Yes allowed Level of interaction between Low Moderate-High Moderate-High interviewer and participant Interviewer skill level Low Moderate High needed Type of data/analysis Usually Usually qualitative, but Usually qualitative quantitative quantitative coding possible © Bourne et al, 2021 6  Vlakke van onderhoudstruktuur Gestruktureerd Semi- Ongestruktureerd gestruktureerd Volgorde van vrae Vasgestel Buigsaam Nie vasgestel Bewoording Vasgestel Buigsaam Nie vasgestel Veraderinge binne vrae Geen Moontlik Heel waarskynlik tussen onderhoude Deelnemer-response Beperk Oop Oop Vrae van deelnemer Nee Ja Ja toelaatbaar Vlak van interaksie tussen Laag Matig-hoog Matig-hoog onderhoudvoerder en deelnemer Vlak van onderhoudvoerder Laag Matig Hoog se vaardigheid Tipe van data/analise Gewoonlik Gewoonlik kwalitatief, Gewoonlik © Bourne et al, 2021 7 kwantitatief maar kwantitatiewe kwalitatief  Interviews vs focus groups © Bourne et al, 2021 8  Onderhoude vs fokusgroepe © Bourne et al, 2021 9  Sampling Talking about thoughts, feelings, or experiences can be difficult for some people to do – Language and communication skills can be a barrier It can be helpful to give participants a choice about how to take part in the study Often a relatively small number of participants are included in qualitative studies – Inclusion and exclusion criteria define what type of person you are seeking, and any reasons why some people would not be suitable participants – May be practical constraints which limit sample size © Bourne et al, 2021 10  Steekproefneming Dit kan vir sommige mense moeilik wees om te praat oor gedagtes, gevoelensof ervarings – Taal- en kommunikasievaardighede kan 'n struikelblok wees Dit kan nuttig wees om aan deelnemers 'n keuse te gee oor hoe om aan die studie deel te neem Dikwels word 'n relatief klein hoeveelheid deelnemers ingesluit by kwalitatiewe studies – Insluitings- en uitsluitingskriteria definieer na watter tipe persoon jy soek, en enige redes waarom sekere mense nie gepaste deelnemers sou wees nie – Daar mag praktiese beperkings wees wat steekproefgrootte beperk © Bourne et al, 2021 11  Focus group sampling Homogenous Heterogeneous Participants share key features, e.g. Participants are different, i.e. no characteristics or experiences connected particular shared characteristics or to the subject matter experiences Pre-existing group New group Participants know one another, e.g. Participants have never met friends/colleagues Concerned group Naïve group Subject matter is important to the Participants have no particular connection participants to the subject matter © Bourne et al, 2021 12  Fokusgroep-steekproewe Homogeen Heterogeen Deelnemers deel kerntrekke, bv., Deelnemers verskil, bv., geen spesifieke eienskappe of ervarings gekoppel aan die gedeelde eienskappe of ervarings nie onderwerp Reeds bestaande groep Nuwe groep Deelnemers ken mekaar, bv., Deelnemers het nog nooit ontmoet nie vriende/kollegas Belanghebbende groep Naïewe groep Onderwerpmateriaal is belangrik vir die Deelnemers het geen spesifieke deelnemers konneksie met die onderwerpmateriaal nie © Bourne et al, 2021 13  Planning interview and focus group schedules © Bourne et al, 2021 14  Breek navorsingsvraag/vrae op volgens onderwerpe Beplanning Identifiseer toepaslike volgorde van van onderwerpe onderhoud- Ontwikkel potensiële vrae met en aansporings en ondersoeke fokusgroep- skedules Hersien voorlopige skedule: herbewoord, herrangskik en verwyder vrae waar nodig Proefloop © Bourne et al, 2021 15  Types of questions Descriptive questions – ask participants to give a general account of something – e.g. What happened on your first day on your university course? Structural questions – find out about the way a participant makes sense of the world, the frameworks they use to think about the world – e.g. How did you decide to go back to university? Contrast questions – prompt participant to compare events and experiences – e.g. How does being a student differ from when you were working full-time? Evaluative questions – ask how a participant feels towards something – e.g. How did you feel when you became a university student? © Bourne et al, 2021 16  Tipes vrae Beskrywende vrae - vra deelnemers om 'n algemene weergawe van iets te lewer – bv. Wat het tydens jou eerste dag op jou universiteitskursus gebeur? Strukturele vrae - vind uit oor die manier waarop 'n deelnemer sin maak van die wêreld, die raamwerke wat hulle gebruik om oor die wêreld te dink – bv. Hoe het jy besluit om terug te gaan universiteit toe? Kontrasvrae - spoor deelnemer aan om gebeure en ervarings te vergelyk – bv. Hoe is dit verskillend om 'n student te wees as toe jy voltyds gewerk het? Evaluerende vrae - hoe 'n deelnemer teenoor iets voel – bv. Hoe het jy gevoel toe jy 'n universiteitstudent geword het? © Bourne et al, 2021 17  Prompts and probes QUESTION: What happened on your first day on your university course? PROMPT: Can you say more about what happened? PROBE: Did you have classes on the first day? PROBE: Was it like you expected? QUESTION: How did you decide to go back to university? PROMPT: Can you tell me more about it? PROBE: What led you to you make the decision? PROBE: Was it a difficult decision? © Bourne et al, 2021 18  Aansporings en polsings VRAAG: Wat het tydens jou eerste dag op jou universiteits- kursus gebeur? AANSPORING: Kan jy meer sê oor wat gebeur het? POLSING: Het jy klasse gehad op die eerste dag? POLSING: Was dit soos wat jy verwag het? VRAAG: Hoe het jy besluit om terug te gaan universiteit toe? AANSPORING: Kan jy my meer daaromtrent vertel? POLSING: Wat het jou daartoe gelei om die besluit te maak? POLSING: Was dit 'n moeilike besluit? © Bourne et al, 2021 19  Question wording, 1 of 2 Aim for Avoid Example question Example question with poorer wording Clear Complicated What happened on your What happened on your first day at or overly long first day on your university university? Think about the first day on course? your actual course and not the first day you visited university or the first day of welcome week. Easy to Double- How did you decide to go How did you decide to leave your job understand barreled back to university? and to go back to university? Relevant Surprising How does being a student How does being a student differ from differ from when you were when you were working full-time, in working full-time? terms of partying and dating? © Bourne et al, 2021 20  Bewoording van vrae, 1 van 2 Mik vir Vermy Voorbeeldvraag Swakker bewoorde voorbeeld van vraag Duidelik Ingewikkeld of Wat het gebeur tydens jou Wat het gebeur tydens jou eerste dag op onnodig lank eerste dag op jou universiteit? Dink aan die eerste dag van universiteitskursus? jou kursus en nie die eerste dag toe jy die universiteit besoek het, of die eerste dag van die verwelkomingsweek nie. Maklik om te Dubbelloop Hoe het jy besluit om terug Hoe het jy besluit om jou werk te los en verstaan te gaan Universiteit toe? terug te gaan universiteit toe? Relevant Verassend Hoe verskil dit om ‘n Hoe verskil dit om ‘n student te wees van student te wees, in toe jy voltyds gewerk het in terme van vergelyking met om voltyds uitgaan en “dating”? te werk? © Bourne et al, 2021 21  Question wording, 2 of 2 Aim for Avoid Example question Example question with poorer wording Emotionally Emotionally How did you feel when you Did you feel confused or neutral worded became a university student again? worried when you became a university student again? Shared Culturally or Can you describe any support you Can you describe any support understanding contextually have received from an individually you have received from your confusing assigned tutor? This role can have personal advisor? names like personal tutor, personal advisor or academic tutor. Interesting Leading What was the most important Many students say that the factor for you in picking your most important factor in university course? picking their university course is the curriculum. Is that what was most important to you? © Bourne et al, 2021 22  Bewoording van vrae, 2 van 2 Mik vir Vermy Voorbeeldvraag Swakker bewoorde voorbeeld van vraag Emosioneel Emosionele Hoe het jy gevoel toe jy weer ‘n Het jy verward of bekommerd neutraal bewoording universiteitstudent geword het? gevoel toe jy weer ‘n universiteitstudent geword het? Gedeelde begrip Kultureel of Kan jy enige ondersteuning beskryf Kan jy enige ondersteuning kontekstueel wat jy van ‘n individueel- beskryf wat jy van jou verwarrend toegewysde tutor ontvang het? persoonlike adviseur ontvang Hierdie rol kan titels insluit soos het? persoonlike tutor, persoonlike adviseur of akademiese tutor. Interessant Leidend Wat was die mees belangrike Baie studente sê dat die mees faktor vir jou by die keuse van jou belangrike faktor by die keuse universiteitskursus? van ‘n universiteitskursus die © Bourne et al, 2021 23  Listening techniques, 1 of 2 Active listening technique Example – imagine a participant has been telling you about their experiences of using social networking sites to support career development Paraphrasing – repeating back what You only use Facebook and not any other sites. they have said but in your own words Reflecting – mirroring back the It sounds like you’ve not found social content or emotional tone of what networking sites to be very helpful. they have said Probing – encouraging the person to Can you tell me a bit more about that? say more © Bourne et al, 2021 24  Luistertegnieke, 1 van 2 Aktiewe luistertegnieke Voorbeeld – verbeel jou dat ‘n deelnemer jou vertel van hul ervaring met sosiale netwerk- webwerwe ter ondersteuning van beroepsontwikkeling Parafrasering – herhaal wat gesê is, Jy gebruik slegs Facebook en geen ander maar in jou eie woorde webwerwe nie. Reflektering – reflekteer die inhoud Dit klink asof jy nie sosiale netwerk webwerwe of die emosionele toon van wat gesê baie nuttig gevind het nie. is Ondersoeking – moedig die persoon Kan jy my ‘n bietjie meer daaroor vertel? aan om meer te sê © Bourne et al, 2021 25  Listening techniques, 2 of 2 Active listening technique Example – imagine a participant has been telling you about their experiences of using social networking sites to support career development Summarizing – pulling out the main You said that you weren’t sure if using LinkedIn points of what they have said would be helpful, but your friend encouraged you, and in the end you’re glad you tried it. Clarifying – asking a question to find What do you mean when you say you found out more or check that you’ve useful contacts for your career through social understood something networking sites? © Bourne et al, 2021 26  Luistertegnieke, 2 van 2 Aktiewe luistertegnieke Voorbeeld – verbeel jou dat ‘n deelnemer jou vertel van hul ervaring met sosiale netwerk webwerwe as ‘n wyse van beroepsontwikkeling Opsomming – identifiseer die Jy het gesê dat jy nie seker was of dit nuttig sou hoofpunte van wat gesê is wees om LinkedIn te gebruik nie, maar jou vriend het jou aangemoedig om dit te doen en op die ou end was jy bly jy het dit probeer. Verheldering – vra ‘n vraag om meer Wat bedoel jy as jy sê dat jy deur sosiale uit te vind of om seker te maak dat jy netwerk webwerwe nuttige kontakte vir jou iets verstaan het beroep gekry het? © Bourne et al, 2021 27  Communication cues Non-verbal cues Verbal cues - Facing the other person - Tone of voice - Eye contact - Not interrupting - Leaning towards them - Noises, such as ‘Mmhmm’ - Open body language, such as not - Appropriateness of response, in folding arms or crossing legs terms of content and emotional - Appearing relaxed, not tense tone - Nodding - Mirroring language, such as - Mirroring body language, such as using words the participant smiling chooses to use © Bourne et al, 2021 28  Kommunikasieleidrade Nie-verbale leidrade Verbale leidrade - Kyk na die ander persoon - Stemtoon - Oogkontak - Moenie in die rede val nie - Leun nader aan persoon - Geluide soos ‘Mmhmm’ - Oop liggaamstaal, soos om nie jou - Toepaslikheid van respons in arms te vou of jou bene te kruis nie terme van inhoud en - Kom onstpanne voor, nie gespanne emosionele toon nie - Weerspieëlende taalgebruik, - Knik soos gebruik van woorde wat die - Reflektering van liggaamstaal, soos ‘n deelnemer verkies om te gebruik glimlag © Bourne et al, 2021 29  Transcribing Transcription: written record of what was said Level of detail needed depends on analysis technique – For some methods only need what was said e.g. thematic analysis – For others need features of speech e.g. discourse analysis May also store notes: interviewer’s thoughts and impressions, group dynamics, emotional tone, points to follow up © Bourne et al, 2021 30  Transkribering Transkripsie: geskrewe rekord van dit wat gesê is Vlak van detail wat benodig word hang af van analisetegniek – Sommige metodes benodig slegs wat gesê is bv. Tematiese analise – Ander benodig kenmerke van spraak bv. Diskoersanalise Mag ook notas stoor: onderhoudvoerder se gedagtes en indrukke, groepdinamiek, emosionele toon, punte om op te volg © Bourne et al, 2021 31  Quotations Use pseudonyms or ID numbers Consider what other information in quotes might unintentionally reveal identities Open science movement – Shift towards publishing raw datasets or data extracts – Provide greater transparency and help show the extent to which results are grounded in the data – Needs to be agreed with the participants and might involve anonymizing the dataset by removing potentially identifying details © Bourne et al, 2021 32  Aanhalings Gebruik skuilname of ID-nommers Neem in ag watter ander inligting in aanhalingstekens per ongeluk identiteite sou kon bekend maak Oop wetenskap-beweging – Verskuiwing in die rigting van die publikasie van rou datastelle of data-uittreksels – Verleen meer deursigtigheid en help om die mate aan te toon waartoe die resultate op die data gegrond is – Moet met die deelnemers ooreengekom word, en mag die anonimisering van die datastel behels deur die verwydering van potensieel identifiserende detail © Bourne et al, 2021 33  Data analysis and storage Most appropriate analysis technique depends upon the research question (or hypothesis) and type of interview or focus group used – Should be identified before data collected Software such as NVivo can help store and code data Need to handle interview and focus group data carefully – Participants highly likely to be identifiable – Follow data security protocols of university or organization – Within Europe the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) governs how organizations collect and protect people’s personal data © Bourne et al, 2021 34  Data-analise en -storing Mees toepaslike analisetegniek hang af van die navorsingsvraag (of hipotese) en die tipe onderhoud of fokusgroep wat gebruik is – Moet identifiseer word voordat data versamel word Sagteware soos Nvivo kan help om data te stoor en te kodeer Nodig om onderhoud- en fokusgroep-data versigtig te hanteer – Hoogs waarskynlik dat deelnemers identifiseerbaar sal wees – Volg datasekuriteitsprotokol van universiteit of organisasie – Binne Europa beheer die Algemene Databeskermingsregulasie (ADBR/GDPR) hoe organisasies mense se persoonlike data versamel en beskerm © Bourne et al, 2021 35  Ethical considerations Who is potentially excluded? Sensitive topics Social dynamics Potential outcomes, including impact upon participants and researcher Confidentiality and safeguarding © Bourne et al, 2021 36  Etiese oorwegings Wie word potensieel uitgesluit? Sensitiewe onderwerpe Sosiale dinamika Potensiële uitkomste, insluitende impak op deelnemers en navorser Konfidensialiteit en beveiliging © Bourne et al, 2021 37  Reflexivity Preconceptions and knowledge can influence how we interpret what participants say and interact with them Reflexive approach: considering and taking note of the influence of their own thoughts, feelings, motivations, and reactions upon the research process and findings Techniques can be helpful for noticing, reflecting upon, and managing the researcher’s potential influence – Keeping reflective log throughout the design, data collection, and analysis process – Taking notes on the emotional tone and nature of the social interactions in interviews and focus groups to refer to during analysis – Checking results with the participants to make sure they reflect what they were trying to convey © Bourne et al, 2021 38  Refleksiwiteit Vooroordele en kennis kan beïnvloed hoe ons interpreteer wat deelnemers sê en interaksies met hulle hê Refleksiewe benadering: oorweging en in ag neem van die invloed van hulle eie gedagtes, gevoelens, motiverings en reaksies op die navorsingsproses en -bevindings Tegnieke kan nuttig wees om die navorser se potensiële invloed raak te sien, daaroor te reflekteer en dit te bestuur – Hou van 'n reflektiewe logboek dwarsdeur die ontwerp-, dataversameling- en analiseproses – Neem van notas oor die emosionele toon en aard van die sosiale interaksies binne onderhoude en fokusgroepe, om daarna te verwys gedurende analise – Nagaan van resultate met die deelnemers om seker te maak dat hulle weerspieël wat die deelnemers probeer kommunikeer het © Bourne et al, 2021 39 Understanding quantitative and qualitative research in psychology / Verstaan van kwantitatiewe en kwalitatiewe navorsing in sielkunde Bourne, James and Wilson-Smith / Bourne, James and Wilson-Smith Chapter 29: Mixed methods research / Hoofstuk 29: Gemengde navorsingsmetodes  Mixed methods research Combines qualitative and quantitative methodologies Useful when the aims of the research require approaching the topic in more than one way at once or in multiple steps Might use a single method to collect both quantitative and qualitative data at the same time Might use more than one method to collect qualitative and quantitative data separately © Bourne et al, 2021 2  Gemengde metodes-navorsing Kombineer kwalitatiewe en kwantitatiewe metodologieë Nuttig wanneer die oogmerke van die navorsing vereis dat die onderwerp terselfdertyd op meer as een manier of in veelvuldige stappe benader moet word Mag 'n enkele metode gebruik om terselfdertyd beide kwantitatiewe en kwalitatiewe data te versamel Mag meer as een metode gebruik om kwalitatiewe en kwantitatiewe data apart te versamel © Bourne et al, 2021 3  Mixed methods example Example: researching people’s perceptions about tactical voting in elections Example 1: Same Example 2: Same or different participants in the participants in both parts qualitative and quantitative parts (three columns) i ii iii Time Survey (open & Semi-structured Semi-structured Experiment point 1 standardized items) interviews & interviews Experiment Time N/A N/A Experiment Semi-structured point 2 interviews © Bourne et al, 2021 4  Gemengde metodes-voorbeeld Voorbeeld: navorsing aangaande mense se persepsies rondom taktiese stemmery in verkiesings Voorbeeld 1: Dieselfde Voorbeeld 2: Dieselfde of verskillende deelnemers in deelnemers in beide die kwalitatiewe en kwantitatiewe gedeeltes gedeeltes i ii iii Tydstip Opname (oop & Semi- Semi- Eksperiment 1 gestandardiseerde items) gestruktureerde gestruktureerde onderhoude & onderhoude Eksperiment Tydstip N/A N/A Eksperiment Semi- 2 gestruktureerde onderhoude © Bourne et al, 2021 5  Reasons for using mixed methods: Fuller understanding Reason Explanation Triangulation Triangulating findings means seeing whether qualitative and quantitative methods find something similar on the topic. Completeness Use of both quantitative and qualitative methods to gain a more complete understanding of a topic. Complementarity Use of both quantitative and qualitative methods to balance out strengths and weaknesses in the two approaches. © Bourne et al, 2021 6  Redes om gemengde metodes te gebruik: Vollediger begrip Rede Verduideliking Triangulasie Triangulasiebevindings behels om te ondersoek of kwalitatiewe en kwantitatiewe bevindings ooreenstem in terme van die onderwerp. Volledigheid Gebruik van beide kwantitatiewe en kwalitatiewe metodes om ‘n meer volledige begrip van die onderwerp te verkry. Komplementariteit Gebruik van beide kwantitatiewe en kwalitatiewe metodes om die sterk- en swakpunte binne die twee benaderings uit te balanseer. © Bourne et al, 2021 7  Reasons for using mixed methods: Theory development and testing Reason Explanation Theory Qualitative methods can be used to develop a development and psychological theory or model, from which hypothesis-testing hypotheses can be developed and quantitatively tested. Instrument Qualitative methods can be used to develop or development refine items for a new standardized psychological instrument or measure, which can then be quantitatively pilot-tested. © Bourne et al, 2021 8  Redes om gemengde metodes te gebruik: Teorie-ontwikkeling en -toetsing Rede Verduideliking Teorie- Kwalitatiewe metodes kan gebruik word om ‘n ontwikkeling en sielkundige teorie of model te ontwikkel, hipotesetoetsing waarvolgens hipoteses ontwikkel en kwantitatief getoets kan word. Instrument- Kwalitatiewe metodes kan gebruik word om items ontwikkeling vir ‘n nuwe gestandaardiseerde sielkundige instrument of meting te ontwikkel of te verfyn, wat dan kwalitatief geproefloop kan word. © Bourne et al, 2021 9  Reasons for using mixed methods: Intervention evaluation Reason Explanation Evaluating an The approaches can be combined to evaluate intervention whether or not an intervention worked (using quantitative measures), and why it did or did not work (using qualitative methods). Clinical trials Mixed methods can be used in clinical trials to establish the effectiveness of a treatment. As well as exploring why the treatment did or did not work, qualitative elements can be used to aid initial development of the treatment and to identify appropriate trial participants. © Bourne et al, 2021 10  Redes om gemengde metodes te gebruik: Evaluering van ingryping Rede Verduideliking Evaluasie van Die benaderings kan gekombineer word om te evalueer ingryping of ‘n ingryping gewerk het of nie (deur middel van kwantitatiewe metings), en waarom dit gewerk het of nie (deur middle van kwalitatiewe metodes). Kliniese Gemengde metodes kan gebruik word in kliniese proewe proewe om die effektiwiteit van ‘n behandeling te bepaal. Sowel as om te ondersoek waarom die behandeling gewerk het of nie, kan kwalitatiewe elemente gebruik word om die aanvanklike ontwikkeling van die behandeling aan te help en om toepaslike proefdeelnemers te identifiseer. © Bourne et al, 2021 11  Reasons for using mixed methods: Sampling and generalization Reason Explanation Sampling One element of a mixed methods study can be conducted first in order to aid the sampling of participants for the second part. Most commonly, quantitative measures may be used to identify appropriate participants for involvement in a qualitative approach. Generalizing Quantitative methods might be used to see whether findings findings from an initial qualitative element generalise to a wider population © Bourne et al, 2021 12  Redes om gemengde metodes te gebruik: Steekproefneming en veralgemening Rede Verduideliking Steekproef- Een element van ‘n gemengde metodestudie kan neming eerstens uitgevoer word om te help met die steekproefneming van deelnemers vir die tweede gedeelte. Oor die algemeen kan kwantitatiewe metings gebruik word om gepaste deelnemers vir betrokkenheid by ’n kwalitatiewe benadering te identifiseer. Veralgeme- Kwantitatiewe metodes kan gebruik word om te sien of ning van bevindings van ‘n aanvanklik kwalitatiewe element bevindings veralgemeen kan word na ‘n breër populasie. © Bourne et al, 2021 13  Philosophical considerations There are important differences in qualitative and quantitative approaches to reasoning, knowledge, and the study of reality. A challenge within mixed methods research is therefore how to balance or reconcile these different perspectives. – Philosophical positions held by researchers can constrain which methods they use. Important to consider the underpinning philosophy for the different methods being used and your position in relation to these – Will affect whether you choose to adopt the methods and how you interpret the findings © Bourne et al, 2021 14  Filosofiese oorwegings Daar is belangrike verskille tussen kwalitatiewe en kwantitatiewe benaderings in terme van redenering, kennis en die bestudering van die werklikheid. 'n Uitdaging binne gemengde metodes-navorsing is dus hoe om hierdie verskillende perspektiewe te balanseer of te versoen. – Filosofiese posisies wat deur navorsers gehuldig word, kan beperk watter metodes hulle gebruik. Belangrik om die onderliggende filosofie vir die verskillende metodes wat gebruik word, sowel as jou posisie ten opsigte van hulle, in ag te neem – Sal affekteer of jy kies om die metodes aan te neem en hoe jy die bevindings interpreteer © Bourne et al, 2021 15  Handling philosophical differences Pragmatism: aim of scientific study is seen as to achieve positive change in the world; emphasis upon using any methodology which will help address the research question and achieve the end goal Purism: philosophical differences between qualitative and quantitative positions are incompatible, and therefore the methodologies cannot be mixed Transformative framework: related to pragmatism, goal of research is to be transformative in society and a mixture of methodologies may be used; knowledge seen as reflecting social hierarchies and relationships Mid-point: openness to using either quantitative or qualitative methodologies, or both together, depending upon what is appropriate for the research question – whilst being mindful of the philosophical differences © Bourne et al, 2021 16  Hantering van filosofiese verskille Pragmatisme: oogmerk van wetenskaplike studie is om positiewe verandering in die wêreld teweeg te bring; klem op gebruik van enige metodologie wat sal help om die navorsingsvraag aan te spreek en die einddoel te bereik Purisme: filosofiese verskille tussen kwalitatiewe en kwantitatiewe posisies is onversoenbaar, en dus kan die metodologieë nie gemeng word nie Transformatiewe raamwerk: verwant aan pragmatisme, doel van navorsing is om transformatief te wees binne die gemeenskap en 'n mengsel van metodologieë kan gebruik word; kennis word gesien as weerspieëling van sosiale hiërargieë en verhoudings Middelpunt: openheid vir gebruik van óf kwantitatiewe óf kwalita- tiewe metodologieë, of albei saam, afhangend van wat toepaslik is vir die navorsingsvraag, met 'n begrip vir die filosofiese verskille © Bourne et al, 2021 17  Timing of the elements © Bourne et al, 2021 18  Tydsbeplanning van die elemente © Bourne et al, 2021 19  Emphasis upon the approaches Equal emphasis upon the two approaches – E.g., triangulation, completeness, intervention evaluation Greater emphasis upon the quantitative element – E.g., theory development, instrument/measure development and testing, generalizing, intervention research Greater emphasis upon the qualitative element – E.g., fuller understanding Varying emphasis across a programme of research – E.g., multiphase studies © Bourne et al, 2021 20  Klem op die benaderings Gelyke klem op die twee benaderings – Bv., triangulasie, volledigheid, evaluering van intervensie Groter klem op die kwantitatiewe element – Bv., teorie-ontwikkeling, meetinstrument-ontwikkeling en toetsing, veralgemening, intervensienavorsing Groter klem op die kwalitatiewe element – Bv., vollediger begrip Variërende klem dwarsoor 'n program van navorsing – Bv., multifase-studies © Bourne et al, 2021 21  Practical considerations Select appropriate qualitative and quantitative methodologies for Choosing their purpose in the research which methods Philosophical considerations might influence which methodologies to combine are selected The skills and experience of the researcher(s) may constrain which Skills and methodologies can be used resources The resources available may constrain what can practically be run required within the timeframe available Working in a In a team the researcher(s) working on the quantitative and team of qualitative elements need to work in combination, rather than treat researchers them as separate studies Consider whether the same or different participants will be used in Selecting the different parts of the study participants A subset of the overall participants group could be used within one part © Bourne et al, 2021 22  Praktiese oorwegings Selekteer Selekteer toepaslike kwalitatiewe en kwantitatiewe metodologieë watter vir hul doel binne die navorsing metodes om te Filosofiese oorwegings mag die keuse van metodologie beïnvloed kombineer Die vaardighede en ervaring van die navorser(s) mag beperk watter Vaardighede en metodologieë gebruik kan word hulpbronne Die beskikbare hulpbronne mag 'n berperking plaas op wat prakties benodig uitvoerbaar is binne die beskikbare tydraamwerk Navorsings- Binne spanverband moet die navorser(s) wat aan kwantatiewe en werk binne kwalitatiewe elmente werk, nou saamwerk eerder as om dit as spanverband aparte studies te hanteer. Oorweeg of dieselfde of verskillende deelnemers gebruik sal word Seleksie van vir die verskillende gedeeltes van die studie deelnemers 'n Sub-groep van die algehele groep deelnemers kan vir een gedeelte gebruik word © Bourne et al, 2021 23  Introduction Typically a single literature review covering the research topic and developing the study rationale Important to show why a mixed methods design is most appropriate Clearly show whether the research was conducted within a particular framework or perspective, such as from a pragmatic or interpretative perspective, or how philosophical differences between quantitative and qualitative approaches were managed © Bourne et al, 2021 24  Inleiding Tipies 'n enkele literatuuroorsig wat die navorsings- onderwerp dek en die studierasionaal ontwikkel Belangrik om aan te dui hoekom 'n gemengde metode- ontwerp mees toepaslik is Toon duidelik aan of die navorsing binne 'n spesifieke raamwerk of perspektief onderneem is, soos byvoorbeeld slegs 'n pragmatiese of interpretatiewe perspektief, of hoe filosofiese verskille tussen kwantitatiewe en kwalitatiewe benaderings bestuur is © Bourne et al, 2021 25  Method May be divided into write-ups for each part separately, each following the conventions for qualitative or quantitative research – Most likely in sequential or multiphase designs – Order could be based upon which comes first, or which has greater emphasis A single Method section is likely for concomitant designs and where there is equal emphasis on both elements. A single Design section can describe the overall study approach, including both elements. Include details of data analysis for each element, and how data will be analysed to combine the findings. © Bourne et al, 2021 26  Metode Mag verdeel word in aparte opskrywings vir elke gedeelte, waarvan elk die konvensies vir kwalitatiewe of kwantitatiewe navorsing volg – Mees waarskynlik by opeenvolgende- of multifase-ontwerpe – Volgorde kan gebaseer wees op watter een eerste kom, of watter een mees beklemtoon word 'n Enkele Metode-afdeling is waarskynlik by gepaardgaande ontwerpe, en waar daar gelyke klem is op beide elemente. 'n Enkele Ontwerp-afdeling kan die algehele studiebenadering beskryf, insluitende beide elemente. Sluit detail van data-analise in vir elke element, en hoe data analiseer sal word om die bevindings te kombineer. © Bourne et al, 2021 27  Results Results from the quantitative and qualitative parts might be presented one after the other, following the order used within the Method section. A final section within Results could be included to present any combined findings from across the two elements. Where there are multiple research questions, the Results may be sub-divided by these questions, and the findings from either or both study parts included where relevant. © Bourne et al, 2021 28  Resultate Resultate vanuit die kwantitatiewe en kwalitatiewe gedeeltes kan agtereenvolgend aangebied word, in ooreenstemming met die volgorde wat in die Metode-afdeling gebruik is. 'n Finale afdeling kan binne Resultate ingesluit word om enige gekombineerde bevindings dwarsoor die twee elemente aan te bied. Waar daar veelvuldige navorsingsvrae is, kan die Resultate volgens hierdie vrae onderverdeel word, en die bevindings vir een of albei studiegedeeltes kan ingesluit word waar hulle relevant is. © Bourne et al, 2021 29  Discussion Typically fully integrated, with the individual qualitative and quantitative findings and the combined results considered The order in which results are summarized and discussed should mirror the order used within the Method and Results. It can be challenging if the quantitative and qualitative findings contradict each other. – A strong report will acknowledge the contradictions, and discuss why they might have occurred and what the implications are. All parts of the Discussion, including limitations, strengths, future directions, and conclusions should reflect both parts of the study, and their combination. © Bourne et al, 2021 30  Bespreking Tipies ten volle geïntegreerd, met oorweging van die individuele kwalitatiewe en kwantitatiewe bevindings en die gekombineerde resultate Die volgorde waarin resultate opgesom en bespreek word moet die volgorde weerspieël wat binne die Metode- en Resultaat-afdelings gebruik is. Dit kan uitdagend wees indien die kwantitatiewe en kwalitatiewe bevindings teenstrydig is. – 'n Sterk verslag sal die teenstrydighede erken, en bespreek waarom hulle sou kon voorkom en wat die implikasies is. Alle gedeeltes van die Bespreking, insluitende beperkings, sterk punte,toekomstige rigtings en konklusies, moet beide gedeeltes van die studie sowel as hulle kombinasie weerspieël. © Bourne et al, 2021 31  Thinking critically, 1 van 4 Introduction – Is there a clear rationale for using a mixed methods design? – Is there consideration given to the philosophical challenges involved in combining quantitative and qualitative approaches? – Is the contribution of the two approaches, and of the combination, to the research question(s) clear? © Bourne et al, 2021 32  Kritiese denke, 1 van 4 Inleiding – Is daar 'n duidelike rasionaal vir die gebruik van 'n gemengde metode-ontwerp? – Is oorweging gegee aan die filosofiese uitdagings betrokke by die kombinering van kwantitatiewe en kwalitatiewe benaderings? – Is die bydrae van die twee benaderings en hul kombinasie tot die navorsingsvraag/vrae duidelik? © Bourne et al, 2021 33  Thinking critically, 2 of 4 Method – Is it clear whether a concomitant, sequential, or multiphase design is used, and is this appropriate for addressing the research question(s)? – Is it clear whether equal emphasis is being placed upon the qualitative and quantitative parts or if there is greater emphasis upon one, and is this appropriate given the study rationale and research question(s)? – Is appropriate information given about the sample(s), and whether the same or different participants are involved in each part of the research? – Are all data collection methods clearly described? © Bourne et al, 2021 34  Kritiese denke, 2 van 4 Metode – Is dit duidelik of 'n gepaardgaande, agtereenvolgende of multifase-ontwerp gebruik is, en is dit toepaslik vir die aanspreek van die navorsingsvraag/vrae? – Is dit duidelik of gelyke klem geplaas word op die kwalitatiewe en die kwantitatiewe gedeeltes en of daar groter klem op een van hulle is, en is dit toepaslik gegewe die studie-rasionaal en navorsingsvraag/vrae? – Word toepaslike inligting verskaf omtrent die steekproef/steekproewe, en of dieselfde of verskillende deelnemers by elke gedeelte van die navorsing betrokke is? – Word alle dataversamelingmetodes duidelik beskryf? © Bourne et al, 2021 35  Thinking critically, 3 of 4 Method (continued) – Have ethical issues been fully considered for all parts of the study? – Are all data analysis techniques clearly described, including where relevant the order of data analysis across study parts? Results – Are all findings clearly presented? – Is it clear how findings from one part of the study have informed the other part (if relevant)? © Bourne et al, 2021 36  Kritiese denke, 3 van 4 Metode (vervolg) – Is etiese kwessies ten volle in ag geneem vir alle gedeeltes van die studie? – Word alle data-analisetegnieke duidelik beskryf, insluitende die volgorde van data-analise dwarsoor studiegedeeltes waar relevant? Resultate – Word alle bevindings duidelik aangebied? – Is dit duidelik hoe bevindings vanuit een gedeelte van die studie die ander gedeelte beïnvloed het (indien relevant)? © Bourne et al, 2021 37  Thinking critically, 4 of 4 Discussion – Are findings from all parts of the study summarized and discussed? – Are the ways in which the qualitative and quantitative findings combine discussed? – Are study limitations, including about both the integrity of the individual study parts and their integration, considered? – What are the strengths of the research, both in terms of the integrity of the individual study parts and their integration, and how do these support the findings and any claims made about their implications? – Do the study conclusions build upon both the quantitative and qualitative findings, and how these combine? © Bourne et al, 2021 38  Kritiese denke, 4 van 4 Bespreking – Is bevindings vanuit alle gedeeltes van die studie opgesom en bespreek? – Word die maniere waarop die kwalitatiewe en kwantitatiewe bevindings gekombineer is, bespreek? – Word studiebeperkings, insluitende dié rondom beide die integriteit van die individuele studiegedeeltes en hulle integrasie, oorweeg? – Wat is die sterk punte van die navorsing, beide in terme van die integriteit van die individuele studiegedeeltes en hul integrasie, en hoe ondersteun hulle die bevindings en enige aansprake wat oor hulle implikasies gemaak word? – Bou die studiekonklusies voort op beide die kwantitatiewe en kwalitatiewe bevindings, en hoe hulle kombineer? © Bourne et al, 2021 39  Pluralism Analytical pluralism: using more than one qualitative technique to analyse the same set of data Multimethods: using more than one qualitative data collection technique or more than one quantitative method in the same study As with mixed methods research, should be a clear rationale for analytical pluralism – Can be challenges in integrating different philosophical positions © Bourne et al, 2021 40  Pluralisme Analitiese pluralisme: gebruik van meer as een kwalitatiewe tegniek om dieselfde datastel te analiseer Multimetodes: gebruik van meer as een kwalitatiewe dataversamelingstegniek of meer as een kwantitatiewe metode in dieselfde studie Soos by gemengde metodes-navorsing, behoort daar 'n duidelike rasionaal vir analitiese pluralisme te wees – Daar kan uitdagings wees by die integrasie van verskillende filosofiese posisies © Bourne et al, 2021 41  Pluralism: An example Topic: Exploring the experiences of victims of racially motivated neighbourhood harassment Data collection method: In-depth semi-structured interviews Analysis technique 1: Interpretative phenomenological analysis would provide rich findings about this unique group’s experiences, such as what it is like to gradually feel unsafe in your home or local area Analysis technique 2: Discourse analysis would reveal how victims used language and speech to construct meanings related to their experiences, such as how they use language to position themselves as part of the local community despite their negative experience © Bourne et al, 2021 42  Pluralisme: ‘n Voorbeeld Onderwerp: Ondersoek van ervarings van slagoffers van rasgemotiveerde buurtintimidasie Dataversamelingmetode: In-diepte semi-gestruktureerde onderhoude Analisetegniek 1: Interpretatiewe fenomenologiese analise sou ryk bevindings verskaf rondom hierdie unieke groep se ervarings, byvoorbeeld hoe dit voel om geleidelik onveilig te begin voel binne jou huis of gebied Analisetegniek 2: Diskoers-analise sou openbaar hoe slagoffers taal en spraak gebruik het om betekenisse rakende hul ervarings te konstrueer, byvoorbeeld hoe hulle taal gebruik om hulself te posisioneer as deel van die plaaslike gemeenskap ten spyte van hulle negatiewe ervaring © Bourne et al, 2021 43 Psychology/Sielkunde 243 22 July 2024 Lecturer’s Contact Information Dosent se Kontakbesonderhede Mrs Robyn Williams Krotoa Building, Room/Kamer 2014 [email protected] Consultation hours/ Konsultasietye: via email request to/ via e-posversoek aan [email protected]. Mondays, 12h00 – 13h00 Wednesdays, 11h00-12h00  Introduction/ Inleiding  Presents core theoretical elements of research methodology in the field of psychology, using examples of psychological issues relevant in the current South African Context Bekendstelling van belangrikste teoretiese elemente van navorsingsmetodologie binne die veld van sielkunde, met voorbeelde van sielkundige aangeleenthede wat in die hedendaagse Suid-Afrikaanse Konteks relevant is  Aim: To equip students with skills to evaluate the scientific literature in psychology Oogmerk: Om studente toe te rus met vaardighede om die wetenskaplike leesstof binne sielkunde te evalueer  Forms the basis of students’ understanding of research methodology that may inform your own psychological research, should you choose to pursue this later in your career Vorm die grondslag vir studente se begrip van navorsingsmetodologie, wat jou eie sielkundige navorsing kan rig indien jy sou kies om dit later in jou loopbaan te onderneem Module Outcomes 1. Understand how knowledge is acquired with a specific emphasis on the scientific method 2. Understand the role of theory in scientific research 3. Formulate a research problem 4. Understand the difference between descriptive and intervention studies 5. Understand the difference between quantitative and qualitative research 6. Understand the various approaches to qualitative research methods 7. Understand qualitative data collection methods and analysis Module-uitkomste 1. Verstaan hoe kennis verwerf word, met spesifieke klem op die wetenskaplike metode 2. Verstaan die rol van teorie binne wetenskaplike navorsing 3. Formuleer ‘n navorsingsprobleem 4. Verstaan die verskil tussen deskriptiewe studies en intervensiestudies 5. Verstaan die verskil tussen kwantitatiewe en kwalitatiewe navorsing 6. Verstaan die verskillende benaderings tot kwalitatiewe navorsingsmetodes 7. Verstaan kwalitatiewe dataversamelingsmetodes en -analise Resources Prescribed Textbook: V. Bourne, A. I. James, & K. Wilson-Smith (2021). Understanding Quantitative and Qualitative Research in Psychology: A Practical Guide to Methods, Statistics and Analysis. Oxford University Press. The following chapters from Bourne, James & Wilson-Smith (2021) will be covered: Chapter 1: The basics of research design Chapter 2: Questionnaire design Chapter 5: Experimental design Chapter 14: Correlational design Chapter 21: Qualitative design Chapter 22: Designing interviews and focus groups Chapter 29: Mixed methods Hulpbronne Voorgeskrewe Handboek: V. Bourne, A. I. James, & K. Wilson-Smith (2021). Understanding Quantitative and Qualitative Research in Psychology: A Practical Guide to Methods, Statistics and Analysis. Oxford University Press. Die volgende hoofstukke uit Bourne, James & Wilson-Smith (2021) sal gedek word:  Hoofstuk 1: Die Basiese Beginsels van Navorsingsontwerp  Hoofstuk 2: Vraelys-ontwerp  Hoofstuk 5: Eksperimentele Ontwerp  Hoofstuk 14: Ontwerp van korrelasionele studies  Hoofstuk 21: Kwalitatiewe Ontwerp  Hoofstuk 22: Ontwerp van onderhoude en fokusgroepe  Hoofstuk 29: Gemengde navorsingsmetodes Lecture Times and Venues Duration: 22 July – 6 September 2023 3 lectures per week for 7 weeks Venue: All lectures will be presented in the Krotoa Building, in Room 1001. Lectures: Group 1 Mon 15h00 Tue 12h00 Thurs 14h00 Group 2 Mon 11h00 Wed 10h00 Fri 08h00 Lesingtye en Lokale Tydsduur: 22 Julie – 6 September 2023 3 lesings per week vir 7 weke Lokaal: Alle lesings sal in lokaal 1001 in die Krotoa Gebou plaasvind Lesings: Groep 1 Maan 15h00 Dins 12h00 Don 14h00 Groep 2 Maan 11h00 Woens 10h00 Vry 08h00 Assessment of Outcomes 1 to 7 The module consists of two written assessments Date Marks Test Monday 26th August 2024 17h30 ( 5:30 PM) 50 Examinations 1st Opportunity: Monday 28th October 2024 09h00 100 (09:00 AM) 2nd Opportunity: Thursday 21st November 2024 09h00 (09:00 AM) 100 A student must write the test to gain entrance to the examination of Psychology 243. A final mark of at least 50%, based on certain proportions of the class and examination marks (0.4 and 0.6 respectively; see General Calendar of the U.S.), is required to pass this module Assessering van Uitkoms 1 tot 7 Die module bestaan uit twee geskrewe assesserings Datum Punte Toets Dinsdag 26 Augustus 2023 17h30 ( 5:30 NM) 50 Eksaminerings 1ste Eksamen: Maandag 28 Oktober 09h00 (09:00 VM) 100 2de Eksamen: Donderdag 21st November 2024 09h00 100 (09:00 VM) ‘n Student moet die toets aflê om toegang te verkry tot die eksamen vir Sielkunde 243. ‘n Finale punt van ten minste 50%, gebaseer op ‘n vasgestelde verhouding tussen die klas- en eksamenpunt (onderskeidelik 0,4 en 0,6; sien Algemene Kalender van die U.S.), moet behaal word om hierdie module te slaag. Bourne, James & Wilson-Smith (2021)  Chapter 1: The basics of research design  Chapter 2: Questionnaire design TEST  Chapter 5: Experimental design  Chapter 14: Correlational design EXAM  Chapter 21: Qualitative design  Chapter 22: Designing interviews and focus groups  Chapter 29: Mixed methods  Bourne, James & Wilson-Smith (2021)  Hoofstuk 1: Die Basiese Beginsels van Navorsingsontwerp  Hoofstuk 2: Vraelys-ontwerp  Hoofstuk 5: Eksperimentele Ontwerp TOETS  Hoofstuk 14: Ontwerp van korrelasionele studies EKSAMEN  Hoofstuk 21: Kwalitatiewe Ontwerp  Hoofstuk 22: Ontwerp van onderhoude en fokusgroepe  Hoofstuk 29: Gemengde navorsingsmetodes  Enquiries All enquiries related to class or examination marks should be addressed to:  Ms. P. Mahlasela ([email protected] )  Supplementary/sick test: Monday 14th October 2024 @ 17h30 (5:30 p.m.) This is not a second opportunity to write the initial test  To qualify, a doctor’s certificate is to be emailed within 7 days after the first test date to Ms. Mahlasela’s email. Only students who submitted the doctor’s certificate within 7 days of the 26th August test will qualify for the deferred test scheduled for the 14th October 2024. Navrae Alle navrae rakende klas- of eksamenpunte moet gerig word aan: Me P Mahlasela ([email protected] )  Aanvullende/Siektetoets: Maandag 14th Oktober 2024 @ 17h30 (5:30 p.m.)  Dit is nie 'n tweede geleentheid om die oorspronklike toets te skryf nie  Om te kwalifiseer, moet 'n mediese sertifikaat binne sewe dae na die eerste toetsdatum na Me Mahlasela se e-posadres gestuur word. Slegs studente wat mediese sertifikate binne sewe dae na die toets op die 26ste Augustus ingehandig het sal kwalifiseer vir die latere toets wat vir die 14de Oktober geskeduleer is.  FINAL IMPORTANT NOTICES  Only students who have submitted their doctor’s certificate within 7 days of the 26th August 2024 test (or who have made prior arrangements with the module coordinator) will qualify for the deferred test scheduled for the 14th October 2024.  Please note that senior year-level tests take preference over junior year-level tests. I will therefore not entertain any requests to write the deferred test due to a clash with first year modules.  Please refer to page 106 in the General Calendar Part 1, 2024, section 4.2.7 of Admission and Registration "Limitations with regard to registration for modules on the basis of timetable clashes" which reads: "... all students are required to scrutinise the class and test timetables for possible clashes of their proposed modules and to limit their choice of modules strictly to the possibilities catered for by these timetables. No student may take modules that clash on any of the timetables. ".  I will therefore not entertain any queries regarding lecture or examination timetable clashes and will not respond to emails regarding this matter.  FINALE BELANGRIKE KENNISGEWING  Slegs studente wat hulle mediese sertifikate binne sewe dae na die toets van die 26de Augustus ingehandig het (of vooraf reëlings met die modulekoördineerder getref het) sal kwalifiseer vir die latere toets wat vir die 14de Oktober 2024 geskeduleer is.  Let asseblief daarop dat senior jaarvlaktoetse voorkeur geniet bo junior jaarvlaktoetse. Ek sal dus geen versoeke oorweeg om die latere toets af te lê as gevolg van botsings met eerstejaarmodules nie.  Verwys asseblief na bl. 106 in die Algemene Kalender Deel 1, 2024, afdeling 4.2.7 van Toelating en Registrasie "Beperkings met betrekking tot registrasie vir modules op grond van roosterbotsings" wat lui: "... daar word van alle studente verwag om die klas- en toetsroosters na te gaan vir moontlike botsings binne hulle voorgenome modules en om hulle modulekeuses streng te beperk tot die moontlikhede waarvoor binne hierdie roosters voorsiening gemaak word. Geen student mag modules volg wat op enige van hierdie roosters bots nie."  Ek sal dus geen vrae oorweeg rakende lesing- of eksamenroosterbotsings nie, en sal nie reageer op e-posse rondom hierdie aangeleentheid nie.  Have a productive second semester ☺ Mag jy 'n produktiewe tweede semester hê. ☺ Understanding quantitative and qualitative research in psychology / Verstaan van kwantitatiewe en kwalitatiewe navorsing in sielkunde Bourne, James and Wilson-Smith / Bourne, James en Wilson-Smith / Chapter 1: The Basics of Research Design / Hoofstuk 1: Die Basiese Beginsels van Navorsingsontwerp  The research process Find and read background research Develop a research question Design a study to test the question Apply for ethical approval Run the study and collect the data Analyse the data and see what you found Write your study up as a research report © Bourne et al, 2021 2  Die navorsingsproses Vind en lees agtergrondnavorsing Ontwikkel 'n navorsingsvraag Ontwerp 'n studie om die vraag te toets Doen aansoek vir etiese goedkeuring Onderneem die studie en samel die data in Analiseer die data en kyk wat jy uitgevind het Skryf jou studie neer as 'n navorsingsverslag © Bourne et al, 2021 3  Types of quantitative data Nominal data (categorical, extensive, discrete, mutually exclusive) Frequency of belonging to a “category” Example: Handedness, classed as left, right or mixed handed? Ordinal data (continuous, +++ hierarchical) Clear order to data, but distance between points may vary Example: Place in a race, 1st, 2nd, 3rd place etc... Interval data (continuous, ++++ equal intervals) Order to data points, fixed distance between points and negative values Example: Temperature, 1° is always the same and negative temperatures are possible Ratio data (continuous,+++++ absolute zero) Order to data points, fixed distance between points no negative values Example: Height, cm is same at all heights, there are no negative heights © Bourne et al, 2021 4  Tipes kwantitatiewe data Nominale data (kategories, uitgebreid, diskreet, wedersyds eksklusief) Frekwensie van val binne ‘n “kategorie”. Voorbeeld: Hand-dominansie, geklassifiseer as links-, regs- of gemengde handig? Ordinale data (deurlopend, +++ hiërargies) Duidelike volgorde van data, maar afstand tussen punte mag varieer. Voorbeeld: plek binne 'n resies, 1ste, 2de, 3de plek, ens... Interval data(deurlopende, ++++ gelyke intervale) Volgorde binne datapunte, vasgestelde afstand tussen punte en negatiewe waardes. Voorbeeld: Temperatuur, 1º is altyd dieselfde en negatiewe temperature is moontlik. Ratio data (deurlopende, +++++ absoluut zero) Volgorde binne datapunte, vasgestelde afstand tussen punte, geen negatiewe waardes nie. Voorbeeld: Hoogte, sentimeter is dieselfde teen alle hoogtes, daar is geen negatiewe hoogtes nie. © Bourne et al, 2021 5  Research questions and designs What you aim to do Example research Research design in your study question needed Is there a difference in Look for a difference Experimental happiness between between groups of designs individuals who report participants or liking or disliking (Section 2) conditions chocolate? Look for a Is there a correlation Correlational Devise a research relationship between the amount of designs question and pick between two chocolate eaten per a research design (Section 3) continuous variables week and intelligence? What are the main Aim to identify Qualitative difficulties that chocolate categories and designs addicts encounter when themes from text trying to give up eating (Section 4) based data? chocolate? © Bourne et al, 2021 6  Navorsingsvrae en -ontwerpe Wat jy beoog om te Voorbeeld Navorsingsontwerp doen binne jou studie navorsingsvraag nodig Is daar ‘n verskil in die Soek na ‘n verskil Eksperimentele gelukkigheid van tussen groepe ontwerpe individue wat rapporteer deelnemers of dat hulle of van sjokolade (Afdeling 2) omstandighede hou of nie? Ontwerp ‘n Is daar ‘n korrelasie navorsingsvraag en Soek na ‘n Korrelasionele tussen die hoeveelheid kies ‘n verhouding tussen ontwerpe sjokolade wat per week navorsingsontwerp twee deurlopende geëet word en (Afdeling 3) veranderlikes intelligensie? Wat is die hoofprobleme Mik om kategorieë Kwantitatiewe wat sjokoladeverslaafdes en temas vanuit ontwerpe ervaar wanneer hulle teks-gebaseerde poog om sjokolade op te (Afdeling 4) data te identifiseer? gee? © Bourne et al, 2021 7  Variables for experiments © Bourne et al, 2021 8  Veranderlikes vir eksperimente Onafhanklike Afhanklike veranderlike veranderlike Hou deelnemers van Die deelnemers se sjokolade? vlak van gelukkigheid Groep 1: Ja Gelukkigheids -telling Groep 2: Nee Nominale data Deurlopende data © Bourne et al, 2021 9  Relationships between variables / Verhoudings tussen veranderlikes © Bourne et al, 2021 10  Qualitative analyses © Bourne et al, 2021 11  Kwalitatiewe analise Moeilik om nee te sê as Moeilik om te vermy om sjokolade aangebied word sjokolade te koop Situasionele prikkel Emosionele prikkel Stres en ongelukkigheid Verveeldheid © Bourne et al, 2021 12  Developing hypotheses Hypotheses in psychological research Null hypothesis (H0): Alternative hypothesis (H1): Prediction that no effects Prediction that effects will will be found be found Two-tailed hypothesis: One-tailed hypothesis: Prediction that effects will The direction of predicted be found, but with no effects is specified direction predicted Experimental designs There will be no difference Participants who like People who like chocolate in happiness between chocolate will differ in their will be happier than those those who do or do not like happiness from those who who do not like chocolate chocolate do not Correlational There is no relationship People who eat more There is a relationship designs between intelligence and chocolate will have higher between intelligence and chocolate consumption levels of intelligence chocolate consumption © Bourne et al, 2021 13  Ontwikkeling van hipoteses Hipoteses binne sielkundenavorsing Nulhipotese (H0): Alternatiewe hipotese (H1): Voorspelling dat geen Voorspelling dat effekte effekte gevind sal word nie gevind sal word Tweeledige hipotese: Eenledige hipotese: Voorspelling dat effekte Die rigting van voorspelde Eksperimentele gevind sal word, maar met effekte is gespesifiseer geen rigting voorspel nie ontwerpe Daar sal geen verskil in Mense wat van sjokolade Deelnemers wat van gelukkigheid wees tussen hou sal gelukkiger wees as sjokolade hou se vlak van dié wat van sjokolade hou dié wat nie van sjokolade geluk sal verskil van dié wat of nie. hou nie. nie daarvan hou nie. Korrelasionele ontwerpe Daar is geen verhouding Mense wat meer sjokolade Daar is ‘n verhouding tussen intelligensie en eet, sal hoër vlakke van tussen intelligensie en sjokolade-inname nie intelligensie hê sjokolade-inname © Bourne et al, 2021 14  Validity and reliability in research Construct validity: Is the measurement measuring what you intend it to measure? Internal validity: Validity: Is the study designed/run so other factors cannot explain the results? Are you measuring what External validity: you want to? Can the findings be generalised beyond the sample that was tested? Ecological validity: Ensuring Can findings be extrapolated to the good “real world” (if relevant)? design Inter-rater reliability: If multiple researchers code data, do they do it consistently? Reliability: Test-retest reliability: Are you If a measure is taken at two different measuring it time point, are the scores similar? consistently? Internal consistency: Are items within a measure © Bourne et al, 2021 responded to in a similar way? 15  Geldigheid en betroubaarheid binne narvorsing Konstrukgeldigheid: Meet die meetinstrument wat jy wil hê dit moet meet? Interne geldigheid: Is die studie so ontwerp/onderneem dat Geldigheid: ander faktore nie die resultate kan verklaar nie? Meet jy wat jy wil meet? Eksterne geldigheid: Kan die bevindings veralgemeen word buite die steekproef wat getoets is? Ekologiese geldigheid: Versekering van Kan die bevindings veralgemeen word na die “regte wêreld” (indien relevant)? goeie ontwerp Inter-rator betroubaarheid: Indien veelvuldige navorsers data kodeer, doen hulle dit konsekwent? Betroubaarheid: Toets-hertoetsbetroubaarheid: Indien ‘n meting op twee verskillende Meet jy dit tydstippe geneem word, is die tellings konsekwent? soortgelyk? Interne konsekwentheid: Word daar op 'n soortgelyke manier © Bourne et al, 2021 16 reageer op items binne 'n meting?  Ethics in research © Bourne et al, 2021 17  Etiek in navorsing Etiek binne navorsing Ingeligte toestemming en nabetragting Deelnemers moet ten volle bewus wees van hulle verpligtinge voordat hulle toestem om deel te neem: hoe lank sal dit neem, waar sal dit plaasvind, wat sal van hulle verwag word om te doen? Na deelname behoort die deelnemers ten volle ingelig te word aangaande die oogmerke van die studie, waarom dit op hierdie spesifieke manier onderneem is, en die verwagte bevindings Misleiding Passiewe misleiding: Om deelnemers nie ten volle in te lig rondom studie-detail nie Aktiewe misleiding: Om deelnemers doelbewus te mislei Beskerming van deelnemers teen leed Studie moet ontwerp word om enige fisiese of emosionele leed aan die deelnemers te minimaliseer Reg om te onttrek Studies moet ontwerp word sodat die deelnemers op enige stadium, sonder enige nadeel, uit die studie kan onttrek Beskerming van deelnemers teen leed Ten einde anonimiteit te verseker, moet data behandel en gestoor word sodat deelnemers nie geïdentifiseer kan word nie. Indien hulle wel geïdentifiseer kan word, moet data veilig gestoor word om konfidensialiteit te verseker © Bourne et al, 2021 18  Conducting ethical research, 1 of 3 © Bourne et al, 2021 19  Doen van etiese navorsing, 1 van 3 Deelnemer-inligtingsblad Titel van die projek Oogmerke van die projek, en die rede waarom die navorsing nodig is Opsomming van dit wat deelnemers gevra sal word om te doen Stelling rondom anonimiteit en konfidensialiteit Stelling rondom vrywilligheid van deelname en die reg om te onttrek Inligting rondom enige moontlike risiko's, of dat daar geen is nie Volgende stelling dat etiese goedkeuring verleen is, en deur wie Kontakbesonderhede van die navorsers © Bourne et al, 2021 20  Conducting ethical research, 2 of 3 © Bourne et al, 2021 21  Doen van etiese navorsing, 2 van 3 Toestemmingsvorm Titel van die projek Stellings van bevestiging, waarvan elk ‘n ‘ja/nee’ respons bevat Bevestiging dat die studie en die oogmerke daarvan verduidelik is Bevestiging dat hulle in staat was om vrae omtrent die studie te stel Bevestiging dat hulle daarvan bewus is dat hulle op enige stadium uit die studie kan onttrek Bevestiging dat hulle toestem om aan die studie deel te neem Deelnemer se naam, handtekening en die datum © Bourne et al, 2021 22  Conducting ethical research, 3 of 3 © Bourne et al, 2021 23  Doen van etiese navorsing, 3 van 3 Terugvoerblad Titel van die projek Oogmerke van die projek. Dit kan meer gedetailleerd wees as in die ‘Deelnemer-Inligtingsblad’ Verwagte bevindings vanuit die studie ‘n Verklaring van enige potensiële risiko, en hoe om moontlike blywende effekte te verminder Kontakinligting van die navorsers Sê ‘Dankie’ aan die deelnemer © Bourne et al, 2021 24  Psychological reports: structure Title Title (about 10-15 words) Abstract Overall summary of your study Introduction What do we know? Why is your study needed? Methods What did you do in your study? Results What did you find? Discussion Interpretation, critique and future directions References What previous research do you cite? Appendices Materials to aid understanding of methods/results © Bourne et al, 2021 25  Sielkundige verslae: Struktuur Titel Titel (ongeveer 10-15 woorde) Abstrak Algehele opsomming van jou studie Inleiding Wat weet ons? Waarom is jou studie nodig? Metodes Wat het jy binne jou studie gedoen? Resultate Wat het jy gevind? Bespreking Interpretasie, kritiek en toekomstige rigtings Verwysings Watter vorige navorsing haal jy aan? Middele wat begrip van metodes/resultate Byvoegsels bevorder © Bourne et al, 2021 26  APA style for statistics statistic (df) = X.XX, p =.XXX The type of analysis The calculated The p value is calculated is Degrees of value of the presented to three signified by a letter freedom (df) are statistic is decimal places and (e.g., r or F) which shown in brackets. presented to two the “p” is italicised. is italicised decimal places © Bourne et al, 2021 27  APA-styl vir statistiek statistiek (df) = X.XX, p =.XXX Die tipe analise wat Die berekende Die p-waarde word bereken is, word Vryheidsgrade (df) waarde van die tot drie desimale aangedui deur ‘n word in hakies statistiek word tot punte aangedui en letter (bv., r of F) in aangedui. twee desimale die “p” is in kursief. kursief punte aangedui © Bourne et al, 2021 28  APA style for referencing Surname then Before last author, Year of publication Article title their initials include an ampersand (in brackets) followed (use sentence (not full name) (not “and”) by a full stop case for title) Schumacher, S. E., Kemps, E., & Tiggemann, M. (2016). Bias modification training can alter approach bias and chocolate consumption. Appetite, 96, 219-224. doi: 10.1016/j.appet.2015.09.014 Journal title Volume Start and end page Digital object identifier (italicised and each number numbers followed by (DOI) presented as word capitalised) (italicised) a full stop doi:xxx © Bourne et al, 2021 29  APA-styl van verwysing Vanne, dan hulle Titel van artikel Voor laaste outeur, Jaar van publikasie (in voorletters (gebruik sluit ‘n ampersand in hakies) gevolg deur ‘n (nie volle name “sentence case” (nie “en”) punt. nie) vir die titel) Schumacher, S. E., Kemps, E., & Tiggemann, M. (2016). Bias modification training can alter approach bias and chocolate consumption. Appetite, 96, 219-224. doi: 10.1016/j.appet.2015.09.014 Joernaaltitel (in Volume- Begin en einde Digitale objek- kursief en elke woord nommer bladsynommers identifiseerder (DOI) begin met ‘n (kursief) gevolg deur ‘n punt aangedui as doi:xxx hoofletter) © Bourne et al, 2021 30 Understanding quantitative and qualitative research in psychology / Verstaan van kwantitatiewe en kwalitatiewe navorsing Bourne, James and Wilson-Smith / Bourne, James en Wilson-Smith Chapter 5: Experimental Design / Hoofstuk 5: Eksperimentele Ontwerp Independent and dependent variables © Bourne et al, 2021 2 Onafhanklike en afhanklike veranderlikes Onafhanklike Afhanklike veranderlike (OV) veranderlike (AV) Of deelnemers bewustheids- Vraelys oor drang vir behandeling ontvang sjokolade het of nie Groep 1: Kontrole (geen behandeling) Drang vir sjokolade Groep 2: Bewustheids- behandeling © Bourne et al, 2021 3 Between and within groups variance, 1 of 3 Between groups variance Craving for chocolate Experimental/model variability that can be explained by the IV manipulation Within groups variance Random/residual variability that cannot be explained by the IV manipulation Control Mindfulness © Bourne et al, 2021 4 Tussengroep en binnegroep-variansie, 1 van 3 Tussengroep-variansie Eksperimentele/model variansie wat Drang vir sjokolade verduidelik kan word deur manipulasie van die OV Binnegroep-variansie Lukrake/residuele variansie wat nie deur die manipulasie van die OV verduidelik kan word nie Kontrole Bewustheid © Bourne et al, 2021 5 Between and within groups variance, 2 of 3 Lab one Between The data collected Craving for chocolate groups variance by lab one show, relatively, far more variability between Within the groups than groups within the groups variance Control Mindfulness © Bourne et al, 2021 6 Tussengroep en binnegroep-variansie, 2 van 3 Lab een Tussengroep- variansie Die data versamel Drang vir sjokolade deur lab een wys, relatief gesproke, veel meer afwyking Binnegroep- tussen die groepe as variansie binne die groepe Kontrole Bewustheid © Bourne et al, 2021 7 Between and within groups variance, 3 of 3 Lab two Between