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This document appears to be condensed notes on biology. It covers topics such as data analysis with different types of graphs and charts to highlight trends and patterns, research methodologies, statistical hypothesis testing (such as chi-squared test) with its assumptions, concepts of sample error and population, analysis different types of test like T-test, regression, and significance.
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ME MY St I f & , biology a quantitative subject--deals with numbers : data sets ·...
ME MY St I f & , biology a quantitative subject--deals with numbers : data sets · is data to compare variation analysingdata comparing un an organised way , In order to highlight trends and patterns · In the data set conducting Research · : 049 1. research question 0 = p. 2. hypothes (s -. 3 experimental design type /errors = false positives 4 data collection type 2 errors false negatives = ~.. data visualisation - 5 analysis I 6. present results D = 0 05/. · of population sample-- small subset population--all members of defined group · · sample error--random varration introduced into the data set due to utilising only a sample of entire population continuous variable histogram - · bar chart categorical -- · · statistical hypothesis--statement/assumption do with characteristics to of population or relationships between variables · Ho--default expectation that categorical outcomes are all equally curely all H, expectation that categorical outcomes are not equally · - likely · chi-squared test--used when observations are assigned into mutually exclusive classes I I 1. no. of observations on each class compared to expectations under Ho Assumptions. : " 1 variances categorical = I , undependent observations = musually exclusive most of the expected values are greater than 5. formula : x = Eld'e) difference = observed - expected · degrees of freedom = (no of· rows - 1) x (no · of columns-1 p-value probability that we would've observed a given deviation If Ho · - - was correct · effect size--helps researchers assess magnitude of an effect effect effects ! - small site = minimal · +- test--statistical estimate of how dufferent 2 means are ! regression model allows analysis of relationships between a response · - variable/dependent) and an explanatory variable (independent ( · residuals - - differences between the observed values and those predicted by regression Line R -- proportion of variance of our response variable that is explained valyThe explanatory vara a ↳ higher stronger relationship - number = 95 % confidence interval--range where It is reasonably likely that · the true population average lies - large interval less confident = fisher's exact test--smaller sample size (15) · cross-sectional snapshot of different individuals at a certain time · -- congitudinal investigate individual over period of time and collect · -- data cherry picking--only presenting positive results and ignoring other fundings · EXCESS MORTAL 1 TY excess mortality when mortality rates exceed expected rates · -- dasgow has lower life expectancy than comparable Cities 1 e Manchester Loverpool ·.. , socioeconomic deprivation poverty factors and - Link between socioeconomic , cultural environmental health outcomes risk factors uncrease lurelihood of developing a certain disease - · 1 MoaufbeMorgyacty , genetic (e.g. figenen obesit , a gender/women live 5 years longer than men ( < women store fat on hips rather than around organs health -- resillance or capacity to cope , maintain and restore one's integrity, · equilibrium and sense of wellbeing fundamental conditions resources for health · peace shelter education food - , , , , Income , stable ecosystem , sustainable resources , social justice - equity aspects of health /allostasis) healthy body can adapt to changing conditions - physical · allostatic load--body's chability to react to stress - > > accumulation of stress leads to damage mental aspects of health--sense of conerance people deal with and recover from serious stress , · , > - how well understand and perceive you manageable stress , un order to preventcness social aspects of health--fulfill their potential and manage responsibilities even with · medical conditions Types of = data = observational measure variables and observe -- differences between peonce · -. Descriptive studies -- acm to describe characteristics of a population/phenomenon , I I studies In order to draw conclusions analytical cross-sectional surveys - correlations populations - - > ecological in , e. g. case control studies - - compare prevalence of exposure variable between healthy controls and people with health condition conort studies in individuals strongest form of observational epidemiology study ! -- -compare incidence of health-related outcomes between groups during the follow-up period > measure exposure before outcome ! experimental added factor measure effects of certain - exposure therapy · , " data collected used to understand causality I , randomised control trials ! epidemiology study of distribution and determinants of health-related states or · -- on specified populations and the application of this events study 1 of to control health studies are observational problems majority - > influences both dependent - independent variables confounding --variable that affects outcome but is not the primary variable · , on the investigation 1 1 e g. Age.. 1. exposure physical activity o = + come mortality = to Minimise effect , measure confounded and statistically adjust to it -> ! reverse causality When y causes s · landmark - > to Minimise analysis ensuring the outcome of -- interest occurs -- after exposure = criteria for causality with epidemiological evidence = appropriately secured--does the measured variable precede onset of disease ? · plausibility is the association consistent with other knowledge ? · -- consistency are findings consistent with other knowledge ? · -- strength -> strength between causal factor effect · - dose-response are increased levels of causal factor associated with greater effect ? -- · reversibility reduction on causal factor , : e fitness associated with an increase -- is a ·.. , in a clease rusk ? randomly-controlled trial = gold standard · reduce as 11difficult compare outcomes between randomised when groups effects of health behaviours on hard disease outcomes evaluating , e. g. CVD events mortality - sample size needs to be 1 large 1.obvious who has duseace and who doesnt a a long time -- have to have enough mortality to measure of · parallel design : A intervention C different groups effect (c-A)-ID-B) - > intervention = receive different treatments b control cros-overdign :control Intervention intervention effect - receive multiple treatments in different periods primary research studies original investigations that collect new daid - - i · systematic reviews comprehensive assessments of existing research using · - predefined methods · meta-analyses -- statistical combination of results from multiple studies to derive overall conclusions Carstairs Index · -- developed in 1981 -used I to compare socioeconomic status 1.. 4 indicators : male unemployment · lack of ownership · overcrowding on household · · low occupational social clas( pros--independent of health measures , simple to measure data easily accessible cons-- doesn'tinclude women workforce · indices of multiple deprivation -- different nations In UK use different standards for Sep , Making comparison difficult epidemiological tables -- values 1 increased rusk of disease · = - 15 years of quiting smoking can significantly decrease the Likelihood of developing · coronary heartacsease Dangreen-whitehead model emphasises that life unfluenced unterplay - - is by a complex · of factors at different levels · behavioural disease risks - physical inactivity Obesity dretary intake , smoring - , , , alconol intare sleep , exercise planned structured and repective bodily movements -- · , · physical activity -- Anybodily movement produced by skeletal muscles that results In energy expenacture guidelines 150 mini moderate Intensity per week or is mins rigorous intensity · -- ,. - buid day on at least two strength 1 150 mons I! 500 mortality mins 30 % reduction in mortality - - Y bias/ lying no % reduction in from questionnaive -50 % achieve guidelines but from accelerometer 10 % - , , , benefits of physical activity children--bone health Cognitive function CV fitness · -- , , , I adults--all-cause Muscle fitness weight depression 1 , , mortality stroke-heart accease hypertension TID , , , , o cancers cognitive function sleep anxiety/depression , , , older adults frailty. -- · measuring grop strength improves prediction of rusk of CVD and mortality ~ older aducts experience 'protective effect with higher BMI · BMIc 35 RgM associated with 93 x rU/k Of T2D Compared with BMI < 22 · "go" associated men--waist with high rusk of obesity-related conditions · women--waist 35" - · 10 portions of fruct + reg per day--40 % lower ruk for all cause mortality microplastics respuratory digestive and immune issues · - > , - toxic chemical exposure La our pollution increases rusk of CVD and mortality -- processed food PA and environmental rusks reducing intake increasing addressing · , lower excess mortality ! BMI categories : · BMI < 18 5. = underweight 18 5 BMI 25 healthy · < < =. 25 BMI 30 overweight · < : · gM1 > 30 = Obese Bonfenbrenner's Social Ecological Model (1977) - 5 domains to capture influences to people's health · individual - > public policy community , , institutional , enterpersonal , dose-response effect improving overall health correspective of weight los) · -- change - where fate muscle is distributed > reduce visceral adipose Tissue Example experiment : determine the effects of equivalent duet or exercise-induced weight · loss and exercise without weight loss on different fat -measure using doubly labelled water/radioactively tagged ( Call Waste water measured I is to know now much energy burnt comes out as water or measure onal glucose intolerance test using surgical interventions to reduce obesity : Adjustable Gastric Band (AGB · -pressure cuff can be released and opened gives signal to limut/increase food upt are 1 more , effective than Lifestyle changes · Roux-en-y Castric Bypass (RYGB ( - intestine goes into stomach so minimal distension , stomach chamber not signalling for more food · vertical sleeve Castrectomy (VSG)( = cuts the stomach off so there is limited space in the stomach for food · Sodium-glucose co-transporter 2 (SGCT2) innibutors + Glucagon-Lore Peptide- 1) GLP1) 1 pathways relating to satecity Inhibit - Impact on glycolysis so body burns fat as energy source combining two drug = greater effect. fracity state of increased vulnerability to poor resolution of homeostasis after stressor -- · ↓ affects and 10 % of those over 65 , increasing to around 65 % of those 90 and above EXTREME BIOLOGY · normal bacteria stats : 2 Mm long , "chromosome , 4. 6 Mbp genome , 4300 protein coding sequence · candidatus pelagibacter unique global bacteria - most numerous · Epulopiscium spp. -- large and extreme polyploidy folded cell membrane increases effective surface area 1 "highly Laca arrangement of genomes around cell periphery may permut regional responses to local StIMULL acred. some characteristics and advantages of eukaryotic cells ! environmental adaptation occurs by increasing copy number of relevant gene , · across chromosomes , without losing irrelevant ones maintain ability to survive any ecosystem ! - - Archaea reproduce like bacteria--binary fission fragmentation or budding · -- , ↓ unlike bacteriaxually membrane upda do not form endospores. extremophiles (no endospore formation ( ~ therefore not ~ 0 75. T normal environmental stats. temp -10-37 - · unmidity - C -30-50 %, water activity , ·. , (salt) -0 15-0 5 M.. , pressure -0 Impa. , lonising radiation MSU/ year ~ 0 6. many bacteria vary rubosomal abundance as function of growth conditions · translation time per ribosome > mcn places inherent (limit on bacterial growth - > - rate S could be surpassed if cell could increase polypeptide elongation rate or reduce. ↑ otal mass of rubosomal protein - RNA thermophiles --uic (hyperthermophiles) 122' c · -- enlymes rigid--arises from more con more glutamate - > pairs e g. in Il ,. denydrogenase highm pand. long half life at high temp. e TAQ DNA I. g. polymerase psychrophcles--cold temp. resistance · - high levels of unsaturated and short chain fatty accds 1)eropreigunodinTegation a snock proteins carotenoids--support membrane fluidity and prevent rudamage high pressure bacteria--e g. Mariana trench ·. - > shift between different respiratory components with similar functions It , according to pressure conditions. alanine D-alanine ligament involved in peptidoglycan blosynthesis - : -may form extra linkage between flagella components to stabilise structure and reinforce moticity toxin-antitoxin system protects bacterial population from bacteriophage withstand - - xerotolerance conductions dry · 1. evasion of environmental stress spore formation -- adaptive mechanisms : regulation - osmotic - - prevent H20 loss 1 Iincrease lasy to retention through cell membrane modificationis of extracellular polymeric substances Ntnes(s of DNA repair proteins · AIRULIDULIe) -- PH > 8 5-11. < electrogenic antiporters for Ho accumulation , Nat uptake system , cytochrome C-552 and "accumulation Acidophiles --pn >2 · + Membrane impermeable # highly to - 14k + chanerones duteporter releases Ht to extracellular medium - DNA-renaur proteins for PH homeostasis polyextremopule cold dehydration vacuum acid conising radiation v -- · , , , , , - UV resistance : > Mn accumulation reduced felerels I antioxidants ,. , chaperones + DNA-repair proteins = Xerotolerance in industry : medicine · > antibacterial - antitumour activities - climate change response to drought by bacteria important to crops · - - · bioremediation - - solls In extreme dry conditions ~ use recombinant poly extremophiles space > Survival on Mars ? - · naburat fragmentation degrees of fragmentation high conductivity - " low and · ! good !! I' jesplitting is of habitats , e. g. rever a onacity anthropogenic agriculture housing - - , etc. specialist species -- reside in one habitat carnivores are vulnerable to habitat loss - lower population densities - · natural selection adaptations to natural environment brings local 2. selective harvesting impede , adaptive evolutionary processes · African elephants ivory Sustained size predation shift un age - structure - -- · ways to deal with climate change : ~ shift distribution with climate tolerant (cruts 1 1 in range ↓egseasonally migrantorgamexpendthergeographical an as e remain and adjust--genetic composition , phenotypic plasticity genetic composition Microevolution heritable shifts in allele - 1 > - frequencies p henotypic plasty single genotype gives ruse to different phenotypes. -> in different circumstances ↓ percolourin response to environmental change springbor extinction , at either local or global level parasite an organism that lives in/on an organism of another species and · -- benefits by deriving nutrients at the other's expense · Macaria-- 300 million afflicted 0 5 million dying every year ,. IWarmerve unred - > transmitted via female mosquitos gets the quicker the lifecycle of Malaria parasite , blood cels and burst out every few days causinger as , , 10-21 days for Plasmodium to develop in Anopheles Mosquito average mosquito lifespan 14 days - : - at cooler temps. , mosquitos die before plasmodium life cycle us complete · Lancet fluke -- embryonated eggs shed in faces , before being unjested by snail cercariae are released from shall via respuratory pose in sume ball 1 - > encrust to metacercaride after ant injection. definitive host (cow) enjests infected ants - > uncidental human unfection ToxoplasmosL-- Lives gut of cat In · 1. particularly dangerous pregnant women foes o in -- ↑ people have ut , but immune system keeps it under control Human African trypanosomiasis enter brain causing sleeping suckness -- · , - > cured by elfornthine · leishmaniasis -- parasites invade visceral form in liver or spleen , or cutaneous on skin , /ulcers form causing sores schistosomiasis--worm found in fresh water · praziquante) cures the arcease - - Grant-impact hypothesis - proposed that Earth collided with a Mars-sized planet - · 4) 5 billion years ago explaining 23 4 axis fill : ,. · or exposure highly predictable and moves up and down · temperature is not predictable Obligate Annual all enduviduals Migration - > migrate each year usually · , to the same general areas · Irruptive Mugration -- opportunistic movements that are determined by local conditions Partual Migration part of population migrates pattern us annual and faurly · - , regular Historic Views on bord migration (1822) : · Pfellstorh (arrow stack) caught in Germany with central African spear in its throat subnivean zone under thick stays around oc unsulating snow · -- , , - for smaller animals only contemp -- Vasoconstruction valsed har to trap insulated naur · ,. · High temp. -Vasodulation. lowering of fur. to reduce unsulated acr Heat exchangers duck e g legs.. counter-current system · regional fine tuning--round body minimises heat loss extremeties Rept colder · , · endothermic fish - regional heterothering - effectively - keeps brain I muscles eyes more , working marine mammals that are endotherms dominate polar regions frozen fish--blood has lower osmotic concentration than sequater , so freezes at -0 5 % ·. 1 rather than -2c(seawater. antifreeze proteins > bund to small icecrystals to prevent expansion - - > convergent evolution · homeotherms burn fuel quickly--high metabolic rate · torpor--shorter periods of inactivity often with reduced temperature and Metabolism , handle daily temperature - food fluctuations - nubernation prolonged reduction of body temp and metabolism - ·. fluctuations back to normal whilst ulbernating not fully understood > - - extremehibernation arctic ground squirrels body drops 9 C , · · -- -- temp. to -2. but brain remains above O'C tactics to keep cool in heat--evaporation cooling reflection reducing contact · , , , counter-current systems 1. 1. Darkling thermophrlic scavengers beetles in Namibia--texture on their -- into feed droplets on victims of elytra extreme heat which turn fog particles don't use pheromones to fund nest--use dead reckoning ! - > internal solar-compass and step-counter - spiralling search pattern · vcrus--small parasite that cannot replicate by itself - directs the cell machinery to produce more viruses I size of smallest virus rubosome = - > largest virus Porcine Circovrus--linmdiameter -- 1759 nucleotides SSDNA genome wroids infectious with plants pathogenic agent · -- 250-400 nucleotides > RNA 1 : no proteins encoded--about 15 size of average gene largest virus E ColL-J00nm wide and 1000 2000 am long - · --. > generate energy to produce membrane potential Satellite cruses lost some mechanisms for genome replication co-infected get · - - , by other helper ourus and change environment of host verophage eating verus benefiting from local environment and taking over other · -- , verus , take over some of the polymerase of the other vurus · 14 , 690 known species of virus · estimated 103 viruses on Earth · 263 viruses known to unfect humans - - massive reservor of antiviral components nelical vorns genetic information in the middle - - · usually unfect plants < filamentous vorus--use filaments to reach neighbouring Cell · Baltimore Classification : 1--dSDNA group mostly linear · , 2--SSDNA group Mostly circular · , 3--dSRNA group unea · , group U-- SSRNA ( Vel unear I near · + , · group 5--SSRNA (-ve) mostly Linear , - group 6--retrovirus SSRNA( ve) + reverse transcribed to -ve SSDNA e g. HI - · - ,. form SSDNA group >-- DNA--RNA--reverse transcription to circular · , HepaTLIS B - > dsDNA and SSDNA I - > /overlad - > make ) spiral with RNA replication - partially transcribed parthenogenomic comes into cells -. , partial double/single stranded DNA produces dsDNA, , goes into nucleus replicates producing long RNA , and makes DNA out Of RNA packaging , symbiotic ocruses parasitic waspI · -- amount of - > rurus in oraries large wasp injects eggs into caterpillar and gets eaten inside out -