Agriculture Revision PDF

Agriculture Revision: 1\. In-Depth Study A-levels require a deeper understanding of subjects. You'll focus on fewer subjects but study them in much greater detail. This means more intensive coursework and a stronger emphasis on independent learning. 2\. Increased Independence You\'ll have more con...

Agriculture Revision: 1\. In-Depth Study A-levels require a deeper understanding of subjects. You'll focus on fewer subjects but study them in much greater detail. This means more intensive coursework and a stronger emphasis on independent learning. 2\. Increased Independence You\'ll have more control over your learning. Expect more free periods and self-directed study time. This independence is a double-edged sword -- it\'s a chance to manage your own schedule but also a responsibility to stay on top of your work. 3\. Greater Responsibility With more freedom comes more responsibility. Managing your time effectively becomes crucial. You'll need to balance your studies with extracurricular activities, part-time jobs, and social life. 4\. Coursework and Exams Depending on your chosen subjects, you might have coursework to complete alongside preparing for exams. This requires good time management skills to ensure you meet all deadlines and maintain a high standard of work. 5\. Future Planning Year 12 is also a time to start thinking about your future. Whether it\'s university, apprenticeships, or entering the workforce, this is the year to begin your research and planning. Attend career fairs, university open days, and start thinking about your personal statement or CV. What Should You Do in Year 12? To make the most of Year 12, focus on these key areas: 1\. Stay Organized Keep a planner or use a digital calendar to track assignments, deadlines, and exams. Organization is key to managing the increased workload. Colour-code your subjects, set reminders, and regularly review your schedule. 2\. Engage in Lessons Actively participate in class, ask questions, and seek help when needed. The more engaged you are, the better you'll understand the material. Take thorough notes and review them regularly to reinforce your learning. 3\. Utilize Free Periods Use your free periods wisely. They're a great opportunity to catch up on work, revise, or prepare for upcoming lessons. Create a study timetable that includes these periods to maximize productivity. 4\. Join Clubs and Societies Extra-curricular activities are important for your personal development and can enhance your university applications. They provide a break from academic work, help you develop new skills, and are a great way to make new friends. 5\. Research Your Future Start looking into universities, courses, or apprenticeships that interest you. Attend open days and talk to career advisors to explore your options. Start drafting your personal statement and seeking advice on how to improve it. Off Strong Starting Year 12 on the right foot sets the tone for the rest of the year. Here are some tips to help you hit the ground running: 1\. Set Clear Goals Decide what you want to achieve this year, both academically and personally. Setting goals gives you something to work towards and keeps you motivated. Break your goals into smaller, manageable steps and celebrate your progress. 2\. Get Organized Early from the first day, keep your notes and materials in order. A well-organized workspace helps you stay focused and efficient. Invest in folders, binders, and stationery that help you keep everything in its place. 3\. Build a Study Routine Establish a regular study schedule that works for you. Consistency is key to keeping up with the workload and avoiding last-minute cramming. Experiment with different study techniques to find what works best for you, whether it\'s flashcards, summarizing notes, or group study sessions. 4\. Stay Healthy Make sure to balance your studies with regular exercise, a healthy diet, and enough sleep. Taking care of your physical and mental health is crucial for success. Don't hesitate to reach out for support if you're feeling overwhelmed -- talk to teachers, friends, or counsellors. 5\. Stay Positive Year 12 can be challenging, but maintaining a positive attitude can make a big difference. Stay resilient, seek support when needed, and celebrate your achievements along the way. Remember, it's a marathon, not a sprint -- pace yourself and keep your end goals in sight. Conclusion Moving from Year 11 to Year 12 is an exciting step towards your future. By staying organized, engaging in your studies, and making the most of your free time, you can excel in this crucial year. Remember to set clear goals, build a study routine, and take care of your health. With these strategies, you'll be well on your way to a successful Year 12 and beyond. Good luck! Spearman's rank Null Hypothesis What factors influenced the choice of farm type in these examples? What conditions are needed for the crop/livestock to grow well? Do they need to be produced near the population who will eat them etc? a. Watercress in the Test Valley, Hampshire - Chalk streams possess high nutrient availability+ quality - Aquifers provide high quality and consistent water quality, low turbid water, cold in winter and Hot in summer as reliable precipitation contributes to recharge of Aquifer b. Sheep farming in central Wales - Wales topography = Vast Hills - Runoff leading to erosion of Topsoil - Low nutrient content - Waterlogged soil and Soil Biota add nitrates to the soil= Denitrification - Low fertility -- Shallow soil c. Wheat farming in Syria - Flat area - Wheat is a low water crop and selective breeding can induce drought resistant crops and crop wild relatives. +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | Term | Definition | Examples: Specific | | | | country/region | +=======================+=======================+=======================+ | Grants | Financial assistance | | | | to farmers for | | | | projects to increase | | | | food supply | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | Food aid | A short-term solution | - Reliance on aid | | | to food shortage | may slow the | | | | development of a | | | | country | | | | potentially not | | | | growing adequate | | | | supplies | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | Guaranteed market | A government solution | - Sells on | | | to output exceeding | International | | | demand that helps | Market | | | prevent farms from | | | | going out of business | - Sent to food aid | | | | | | | | - Purchased excess | | | | food by the | | | | government from | | | | farmers | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | Food surpluses | A result of | - Too much stored | | | over-production | food remaining in | | | caused by government | excess supply. | | | guarantees to buy | | | | produce | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | Agri-environmental | Increases farm income | - Farmers paid | | scheme | while also | money for | | | benefitting the | environmentally-f | | | environment | riendly | | | | activities | | | | | | | | - Beetle banks or | | | | Netting of the | | | | Meadows | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | Set-aside | Payments for taking | - Payment to stop | | | land out of | land from | | | production | production | | | | temporarily | | | | | | | | - Planting Legumes | | | | will increase | | | | soil fertility | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | Farm diversification | Payments to encourage | - Lucrative | | | farms to earn money | facilities such | | | other than from | as Restaurants/ | | | farming | farm shops, | | | | Archery and Camp | | | | sites | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | Quotas | Limits on production | - Only produce 35 | | | of a particular food | carrots | | | | | | | | - Potential fines | | | | for excess | | | | production above | | | | quota | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ Soil Bulk density is used to compare soil compaction Bulk density = mass of dry soil sample/ volume of soil sample Bulk density is defined as the mass of soil per unit volume The greater the bulk density the more compact the soil is. Explain how soil bulk density links to soil fertility: Soil bulks links to soil fertility as a higher bulk density has less pore space meaning that infiltration is low leading to low nutrient uptake by roots. Less aerated and less nitrogen fixing bacteria as biota composing consisting of detritivores and decomposers. Explain two reasons why scientists use a soil auger rather than a shovel or trowel 1. Calculate the volume much easier because of the fixed radius 2. Greater depth in soil does not interrupt the Topsoil meaning there is less soil compaction Therefore whereas Suggest two agricultural activities that causes soil compaction - Tractors/ Combine harvesters (heavy-machinery) - Overgrazing - Ploughing - Cultivation of steep slopes - Reduction in Soil Biota - Machinery/Trampling \- Soil PH  Nitrogen Builds up amino acids and proteins.  Phosphorus for ATP cell membranes. What are the farmers doing to control soil nutrients?  Plant legumes for nitrogen fixation.  Plough legumes back into the soil.  Farmers dig a drainage ditch / trench to prevent the soil becoming waterlogged.  NPK - are artificial fertilisers - they are added the most.  Earthworms break down D.O.M and create micronutrients in soil.  Set aside gives the soil a rest to allow nitrogen to be fixed in the soil.  And then plough it to aerate the soil.  Allow livestock on the land - they add manure. Over-grazing: Increases the risks of soil erosion through both removes the vegetation, as well as loosening soil through hoof action Nutrient Category Nutrient Form absorbed Function -------------------------- ------------- ---------------- ------------------------------------ Primary Macronutrients Nitrogen Nitrate ions Protein manufacture Phosphorous Phosphate ions Root growth and ATP manufacture Potassium Potassium ions Ion transport and seed development Secondary Macronutrients Calcium Calcium ions Cell walls Magnesium Magnesium ions Chlorophyll synthesis Sulfur Sulfate Ions Protein synthesis Micronutrients Iron Iron ions Chlorophyll manufacture Zinc Zinc ions Enzyme activation Copper Copper ions Enzyme activation Feeding the 9 billion Genetically modified Crop Wild relative Nitrogen Cycle Environmental Impacts of Agriculture +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Environmental Impact | Causes | +===================================+===================================+ | Habitats | - Farmers clear land that has | | | favourable abiotic conditions | | | for agriculture (often | | | grasslands or forests) | | | | | | - Agroecosystem replace | | | indigenous communities, often | | | decreasing biodiversity  | | | | | | - Farmland may be drained or | | | nutrient enriched | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Introduced Species | - Farming has introduced | | | invasive species into foreign | | | ecosystems | | | | | | - Biological control species | | | may also harm local | | | ecosystems by predating on | | | species other than pests  | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Pollution | - Agrochemicals  | | | | | | - Nitrate toxicity | | | | | | - Nutrient Pollution | | | | | | - Climate Change  | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Hydrological Cycle | - | | | | | | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | | | | | | - | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ Over-grazing: Increases the risks of soil erosion through both removes the vegetation, as well as loosening soil through hoof action **Biotic Factors** For each of the following abiotic factors, state why they are important in agriculture (how do animals and plants respond to these factors) and how farmers control these factors: +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **Factor ** | **Importance** | **Control** | +=======================+=======================+=======================+ | Temperature | - The temperature | - Covering crops | | | range influences | with transparent | | | the growing | sheets | | | season of plants | | | | | - Putting livestock | | | - Frost damages | in buildings  | | | flowers and | | | | fruits | - Greenhouses | | | | | | | - RoT of metabolic | - Avoiding planting | | | reactions | plants in low | | | | lying areas | | | - Thermoregulation  | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | Light | - Lots of light | Artificial lights | | | enable | e.g. Light Lamps) | | | Photosynthesis | | | | increase growth | Shelter or shaded | | | and transfer of | areas | | | nutrients to | | | | occur | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | Water | | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | Soil Fertility  | | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | Soil Aeration | | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | Soil Salinity | | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | Soil pH | | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | Carbon Dioxide | | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | Topography | | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | Relief | | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | Wind Velocity | | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | | - Temperature | | | | | | - Light | | | | | | - Water | | | | | | - Soil fertility | | | | | | - Aeration | | | | | | - Soil salinity | | | | | | - Soil pH | | | | | | - Carbon dioxide | | | | | | - Topography | | | | | | - Relief (altitude) | | | | | | - Biotic factors and their | | | control: | | | | | | - Pest control | | | | | | - Pollinators | | | | | | - Soil biota | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | | - Population control | | | | | | - Control of genetics -- | | | asexual reproduction, sexual | | | reproduction, GM | | | | | | - Agricultural energetics | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | | - Habitat impacts | | | | | | - Introduced species | | | | | | - Pollution | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Hydrological cycle impacts | - Soil erosion (see Yr 1 | | | Physical environment, 'Soils' | | | section) | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Social factors that affect | - Availability of technology | | agriculture | | | | - Economic and political | | | influences | | | | | | - Sustainable agriculture | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ **Biotic Factors** Pest are a major problem for agricultural systems as they damage and destroy the produce. Farmers invest in a variety of pest control techniques to kill pests. Below are the main ones, add some detail to describe how they work. **Crop Rotations** By growing a different crop in a field each year, you prevent a pest building up its population year-on- year. **Predator Habitats** **Biological Control** **Sterile Male Technique** **Pheromone Traps** **Genetic Resistance** **Manipulation of Food Species** Farmers have been manipulating species for thousands of years to improve desired characteristics, such as producing a greater yield. Below are the methods that have been used. **Selective breeding** **Cross breeding** **Cloning** **Micropropagation / cuttings** **Genetic modification / engineering** Environmental Impacts Below are some of the environmental impacts of agriculture. For each of them, come up with a method to stop/reduce them. By reducing the environmental impacts, the agricultural system will become more sustainable. +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Problem | Solution | +===================================+===================================+ | Methane is produced for the | | | anaerobic bacteria in the | | | stomachs of livestock and the | | | soil of rice-paddies. Methane is | | | a powerful greenhouse gas. | | | | | | Large volumes of water are | | | extracted for | | | | | | irrigation. Aquifers and | | | reservoirs are often over | | | exploited as a consequence. | | | | | | Nitrates and phosphates are used | | | in artificial fertilisers. | | | Nitrates and made through the | | | energy intensive Haber process. | | | Phosphates are mined. | | | | | | Monoculture agriculture systems | | | have low | | | | | | biodiversity. Natural ecosystems | | | are often | | | | | | removed and replaced with | | | agriculture. | | | | | | The gene pools of domesticated | | | species are very small, making | | | them prone to disease and | | | environmental change. | | | | | | Pesticides impact non-target | | | species. | | | | | | Carbon dioxide is produced | | | through a variety of agricultural | | | practices, for example the | | | ploughing of fields increases | | | decomposition. | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ Pest control: Application of Antibiotics: Chemicals that kill microbes such as pathogenic bacteria. They are used in livestock farming for several reasons: - To treat infections to kill pathogenic bacteria - To prevent infection by implementing repetitive large doses of antibiotics to prevent livestock from infection with pathogenic bacteria. However, this is a precaution especially where the live stocking density is high, such as in intensive production units - To promote growth: antibiotics can increase the Gross Growth Efficiency of livestock. Regular small doses of antibiotics reduce the population of non-pathogenic gut bacteria. This can increase the amount of the animal's food that is used for growth therefore increasing productivity and farm income. Sedimentation Eroded soil will end up in rivers, this will cause turbidity to increase and will therefore impact on aquatic food webs as macrophytes will have their photosynthesis hindered the build-up of eroded soil in dams behind reservoirs puts stress on the dam and reduce the capacity of the reservoir sedimentation in coastal zones such as estuaries and deltas will increase, affecting their ecology The build-up of eroded soil in rivers increases the risk of flooding for two reasons: 1. 2. Reduction of soil productivity Eroded soils are shallow and lack the same amount of nutrients as a deeper soil. This will reduce crop yields Effects of slope on rain splash erosion How could that be investigated?   Random sampling   Systematic sampling is the best method as part of a controlled environment in a lab.   What is going to be measured?   Equipment to collect data?   How should the data be collected / analysed?   How many samples and why? 30 samples - statistical test.   What factors should be controlled and how?   **Energetics - farmers put energy in and have output.** **Farms go into extremes - not much in the middle.**   **Law of diminishing returns - every additional input, the output increases by decreasing amounts.**   Energy input - energy subsidies. Intensive farm - large energy inputs over a small area.   Extensive farm - Low energy inputs over a large area. (Food) feed conversion ratios FCR - 2.8 sheep 60% - 882 kg +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | Feed | Sheep | Edible | +=======================+=======================+=======================+ | 2.8 | 1 | 0.6 | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | ? |   | 782 | | | | | | | |   | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+   0.6 times x = 782 X = 782 divided by 0.6 = 1303.3 28 × 1303 = 2660 kg   (25 marks) - Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of using Genetically Modified (GM) crops. - Explain how environmental features affect the decisions of where crops and livestock are cultivated. -   - Page 12 - why do these factors lead to this choice? Watercress in the Test Valley, Hampshire -  Chalk streams - good water quality. -  In Hampshire there are a lot of aquifers - water at a consistent water temperature. -  We eat cress in the UK - a luxury food item. Sheep farming in central Wales: Wheat farming in Syria: - Explain why livestock farming may be more productive than crops \[5 marks\]. - The hills in Wales are too hilly to grow crops. - You can grow grass - livestock feeds on grass. - Extreme weather prevents farmers from growing crops. - Seasons influence the growth of crops - some livestock grow all the year round, like chickens. - Shallow soil conditions make it difficult to farm crops. - Explain how control of the environment allows crops and livestock to be cultivated in areas where they would not naturally be productive. Abiotic Factors - Nitrogen - Nitrate Ions. - Phosphorus - phosphates - bio molecules, DNA, ATP. - Micro nutrients - plants need a little, Iron, Zinc, Copper. - Macronutrients. - plants need a lot of - Nitrogen Builds up amino acids and proteins - Phosphorus for ATP cell membranes.  - What are the farmers doing to control soil nutrients?   --------------- -- -- Aeration Salinity Soil PH CO2 Topography Aspect Wind velocity - Explain how social, political and economic factors have affected agriculture. Social factors that affect agriculture Ethics - about the individual - Moral - In the supermarket - choosing organic / free range food. - It is about personal decisions. - Buy free range or not. - Organic or not. - Buy local produce. - Fair trade - workers who have paid enough. - Buy 'in season' food Culture Religion - Beliefs. - It can be personal. - Hindus don\'t eat beef. - Jewish and Muslim people don't eat pork. Political factors that affect agriculture +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | Term | Definition | Examples: Specific | | | | country/region | +=======================+=======================+=======================+ | Grants | Financial assistance | | | | to farmers for | | | | projects to increase | | | | food supply | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | Food aid | A short-term solution | - Reliance on aid | | | to food shortage | may slow the | | | | development of a | | | | country | | | | potentially not | | | | growing adequate | | | | supplies | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | Guaranteed market | A government solution | - Sells on | | | to output exceeding | International | | | demand that helps | Market | | | prevent farms from | | | | going out of business | - Sent to food aid | | | | | | | | - Purchased excess | | | | food by the | | | | government from | | | | farmers | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | Food surpluses | A result of | - Too much stored | | | over-production | food remaining in | | | caused by government | excess supply. | | | guarantees to buy | | | | produce | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | Agri-environmental | Increases farm income | - Farmers paid | | scheme | while also | money for | | | benefitting the | environmentally-f | | | environment | riendly | | | | activities | | | | | | | | - Beetle banks or | | | | Netting of the | | | | Meadows | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | Set-aside | Payments for taking | - Payment to stop | | | land out of | land from | | | production | production | | | | temporarily | | | | | | | | - Planting Legumes | | | | will increase | | | | soil fertility | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | Farm diversification | Payments to encourage | - Lucrative | | | farms to earn money | facilities such | | | other than from | as Restaurants/ | | | farming | farm shops, | | | | Archery and Camp | | | | sites | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | Quotas | Limits on production | - Only produce 35 | | | of a particular food | carrots | | | | | | | | - Potential fines | | | | for excess | | | | production above | | | | quota | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+     The Environmental Impact of Agriculture. Discuss the environmental impact of agriculture - 25 marks Plan +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | Point | Explanation | Case study / | | | | Statistic / Example | | | | | | | |   | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ Write down 17 Environmental Impacts. +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Hydrosphere** | **Biodiversity** | +===================================+===================================+ | **Atmosphere** | **Soils** | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | Biogeochemical cycles | Content | Information | +=======================+=======================+=======================+ | 4.1 The importance of | Many elements have | | | biogeochemical cycles | low availability to | | | for living organisms | living organisms. | | | | Biogeochemical cycles | | | | involve inter-linked | | | | processes that allow | | | | materials to be | | | | recycled and | | | | repeatedly re-used. | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | 3.2.4.2 The carbon | \- The processes in | - Photosynthesis. | | cycle including human | the carbon cycle that | Aerobic | | influences | are affected by human | respiration. | | | activities | | | | | - Anaerobic | | | \- **Sustainable | respiration. | | | management of the | | | | carbon cycle: methods | - Combustion. | | | of counteracting | | | | human activities that | - CO2 dissolving in | | | alter the natural | the sea/exsolving | | | equilibria of the | from the sea. | | | carbon cycle** | | | | | - Biomass | | | | movements. | | | | | | | | - Changes in carbon | | | | reservoirs. | | | | | | | | - Increased | | | | atmospheric | | | | concentration of | | | | CO2. | | | | | | | | - Less soil dead | | | | organic matter. | | | | | | | | - Increased | | | | concentrations of | | | | dissolved CO2, | | | | carbonic acid, | | | | hydrogen | | | | carbonate ions. | | | | | | | | - Increased | | | | atmospheric | | | | concentration of | | | | methane. | | | | | | | | - Reduced amount of | | | | carbon in plant | | | | biomass. | | | | | | | | - Reduced amount of | | | | carbon in fossil | | | | fuels. | | | | | | | | - **Alternatives to | | | | fossil fuel | | | | use.** | | | | | | | | - **Carbon | | | | sequestration.** | | | | | | | | - **Carbon Capture | | | | and Storage | | | | (CCS).** | | | | | | | | - **Matching | | | | afforestation to | | | | deforestation.** | | | | | | | | - **Increasing soil | | | | organic matter.** | | | | | | | | - **Conservation of | | | | peat bogs.** | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | 3.2.4.3 The nitrogen | The processes in the | - The Haber Process | | cycle including human | nitrogen cycle that | fixing nitrogen | | influences | are affected by human | in ammonia, | | | activities | mainly to produce | | | | agricultural | | | Consequences of | fertilisers. | | | changes in nitrogen | | | | reservoirs: | - Land drainage | | | | increases | | | - Eutrophication | nitrogen fixation | | | | and reduces | | | - global climate | denitrification. | | | change | | | | | - The growth of | | | - NOx toxicity | legume crops | | | | increases | | | - Photochemical | nitrogen fixation | | | smog. | in plant | | | | proteins. | | | **Sustainable | | | | management of the | - Sewage disposal | | | nitrogen cycle and | increases nitrate | | | methods of | movements to | | | counteracting human | rivers and the | | | activities that alter | sea, together | | | the natural | with phosphates, | | | equilibria of the | causes | | | nitrogen cycle** | eutrophication. | | | | | | | | - Combustion | | | | processes cause | | | | nitrogen and | | | | oxygen to react, | | | | producing oxides | | | | of nitrogen. | | | | | | | | - Decomposition and | | | | ammonification | | | | affected by | | | | organic waste | | | | disposal | | | | policies. | | | | | | | | **Methods of | | | | counteracting | | | | anthropogenic | | | | nitrogen movements:** | | | | | | | | - **reduced | | | | combustion | | | | processes** | | | | | | | | - **use of natural | | | | nitrogen fixation | | | | processes instead | | | | of the Haber | | | | process** | | | | | | | | - **management of | | | | biological | | | | wastes** | | | | | | | | - **methods of | | | | reducing soil | | | | nitrate | | | | leaching.** | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | 3.2.4.4 The | The processes in the | - Phosphorus | | phosphorus cycle | phosphorus cycle that | compounds are | | including human | are affected by human | mobilised in more | | influences | activities | soluble forms for | | | | use in | | | Sustainable | agricultural | | | management of the | fertilisers. | | | phosphorus cycle and | | | | methods of | - Eutrophication is | | | counteracting human | caused by | | | activities that alter | nutrient | | | the natural | enrichment of | | | equilibria of the | water bodies, | | | phosphorus cycle | combined with the | | | | effect of | | | | nitrates. | | | | | | | | The lack of abundant | | | | reservoirs of | | | | phosphates in the | | | | atmosphere or | | | | hydrosphere is often | | | | the limiting factor | | | | on biological | | | | productivity: | | | | | | | | - the use of | | | | biological wastes | | | | as fertilisers | | | | | | | | - breeding of crops | | | | that absorb | | | | phosphates more | | | | efficiently | | | | | | | | - providing | | | | suitable | | | | conditions for | | | | soil mycorrhizal | | | | fungi increases | | | | phosphate uptake | | | | combustion | | | | processes. | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ 3.2.4.5 Opportunities for skills development and independent thinking Mathematical skill number Opportunities for skills development and independent thinking --------------------------- ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- MS 0.1 Students could convert values and units used in transfer rates, reservoir mass and residence time in the nitrogen cycle. MS 0.2 Students could convert numbers in standard and ordinary form when using masses in biogeochemical cycles. MS 2.2 Students could use and manipulate equations of nutrient transfer rates. MS 3.1 Students could use data on reservoirs and transfer processes to construct a flow diagram of the nitrogen or phosphorus cycle. **3.2.5 Soils 3.2.5.1 How human activities affect soil fertility** Activities that control soil conditions and affect fertility: - aeration of soil by ploughing and drainage - addition of soil nutrients - irrigation - soil compaction, increasing bulk density - pH control. **3.2.5.2 Causes of soil degradation and erosion** Types of soil erosion: - rain splash - wind blow - surface runoff. Natural features that reduce erosion: - vegetation - soil organic matter - high infiltration rate. The Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE) can be used to estimate erosion rates. Human activities that cause soil erosion and degradation: - ploughing vulnerable soils - vegetation removal - overgrazing - reducing soil organic matter - reducing soil biota - cultivating steep slopes - soil compaction by machinery or trampling. The environmental impacts of soil erosion: - reduced productivity - sedimentation in rivers and reservoirs - downstream flooding - coastal sedimentation - increased atmospheric particulates - desertification - landslides. **3.2.5.3 Soil management strategies to increase sustainability** Methods that can be used to reduce soil erosion: - long-term crops - contour ploughing - tied ridging - terracing - windbreaks - multi-cropping - strip cropping - mulching - increasing soil organic matter.  Effects of slope on rain splash erosion How could that be investigated?   Random sampling   Systematic sampling is the best method as part of a controlled environment in a lab.   What is going to be measured?   Equipment to collect data?   How should the data be collected / analysed?   How many samples and why? 30 samples - statistical test.   What factors should be controlled and how? What makes a good 9-mark question?   What makes a good introduction?   Good conclusion? - To conclude.... I...is.... because...   Have extra stuff. Could link to another part of the course. Have a real-world example - go beyond the textbook.   (9 marks) - Discuss how genetic manipulation of food species in agriculture may create advantages as well as problems. - Discuss how the environmental impacts of livestock production may be reduced. - Discuss the ways in which abiotic factors are controlled in agroecosystems to increase productivity. - Discuss the ways in which agriculture may cause environmental pollution. - Discuss the changes in agriculture that would make it more sustainable. - Explain how new technologies have increased food production. - Evaluate the effectiveness of organic farming in reducing environmental impacts. **11. Agriculture** 11.1. Explain how environmental features affect the decisions of where crops and livestock are cultivated. 11.2. Explain how control of the environment allows crops and livestock to be cultivated in areas where they would not naturally be productive. 11.3. Explain how new technologies have increased food production. 11.4. Explain how the control of abiotic factors have increased food production. 11.5. Explain how the control of biotic factors have increased food production. 11.6. Discuss the extent to which altering the gene pools of crops and livestock have affected food production. 11.7 Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of the use of transgenic (GM) crops and livestock. 11.8. **(S)** Describe the environmental impacts of agriculture. 11.9. Explain how social, political and economic factors have affected agriculture. 11.10. **(S)** Discuss the changes in agriculture that would make it more sustainable. Solutions to Soil Erosion  Solution Explanation ------------------------------------------------------ ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Use multi-cropping Growing two or more crops in a field at the same time, with different planting and harvesting times so that the field is never left bare Strip cropping Planting different crops in neighbouring long narrow fields with different planting and harvesting times means that the whole field is never completely exposed to wind and rain Mulching Placing dead plant remains on the surface of the soil increases infiltration, reduces runoff and adds organic matter to the soil Soil conditioning and using increased organic matter Adding manure or compost to the soil increases the soil organic matter content, improving soil structure making it crumbier, so reducing erosion Cultivation of long-term crops Reduces the length of time that the soil has no vegetation cover on it, so reduces the erosion risk Contour ploughing Plough along slope contours and not up and down slope, which would create rills which accelerate soil erosion Terracing Cut steps into slope to create terraces, this increases infiltration and so reduces surface run-off Create windbreaks Planting rows of trees or hedges creates windbreaks, which will reduce local wind velocity, reducing the risk of erosion by wind Environmental Science Agriculture glossary +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Term | Definition and environmental | | | importance | +===================================+===================================+ | Abiotic factor | Physical factors such as light, | | | temperature and water | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Agroecosystem | The living organisms, physical | | | processes and their interactions | | | in a farming system | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Artificial insemination | A form of selective breeding | | | where semen is collected from a | | | chosen male to be inserted | | | artificially into the chosen | | | female to cause her to become | | | | | | pregnant. It also allows semen to | | | be stored for later use or the | | | transport of | | | | | | semen without having to bring the | | | animals together. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Asexual reproduction | Production of new organisms using | | | the genetic material from a | | | single individual. The offspring | | | are genetically identical to the | | | parent | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Aspect | The direction something faces in | | | terms of sunlight | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Autotroph | An organism that can capture | | | light or chemical energy from the | | | environment to make high-energy | | | substances such as carbohydrates. | | | These can be used to make other | | | molecules such as proteins or | | | they can be broken down in | | | respiration to provide energy. | | | Photoautotrophs capture | | | | | | light in photosynthesis and | | | include plants and algae. | | | Chemoautotrophs include bacteria | | | that capture energy from chemical | | | processes involving substances | | | such as nitrogen and sulphur. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Barrier crops | A crop that is grown around | | | another crop to protect the | | | neighbouring crop, usually by | | | producing a scent that deters the | | | pests. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Bioaccumulation | The increase in concentration of | | | a substance in living tissue as | | | it is absorbed and stored faster | | | than it is broken down and | | | excreted | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Biocapacity | A measure of the biological | | | productivity of an area | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Biodiversity | A measure of the variety and | | | abundance of wildlife species. A | | | common quantitative method of | | | measuring biodiversity is | | | Simpson's Diversity Index. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Biological control | The control of pests using living | | | organisms, usually predators or | | | pathogens. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Biomagnification | The progressive bioaccumulation | | | of a material along a food chain | | | e.g. organochlorine insecticides, | | | PCBs, heavy metals | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Biotic factors | Biological factors such as food | | | supply, predation and disease. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Carnivore | An organism that gains its food | | | energy from eating other | | | heterotrophs | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Cellulase | An enzyme that can digest the | | | carbohydrate cellulose | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Cellulose | The carbohydrate made of linked | | | glucose molecules which is a | | | major component of plant cell | | | walls and wood. It is a rich | | | source of food energy but no | | | animals can produce the enzyme | | | cellulase that is needed to | | | digest it. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Centre of Diversity | A geographical region with a high | | | plant biodiversity, especially of | | | the wild relatives of crop | | | species. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Cloning | An artificial form of asexual | | | reproduction | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Companion crops | These are crops that are grown | | | together to benefit one or both | | | crops by | | | | | | actions such as providing | | | nutrients, controlling pests or | | | attracting beneficial | | | | | | insects. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Contact action (pesticide) | A pesticide that kills pests by | | | coming in contact with them after | | | spraying. Unlike systemic | | | pesticides, they are not absorbed | | | and translocated around | | | | | | the crops. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Contour ploughing | A soil erosion control measure | | | where land is cultivated by | | | ploughing horizontal furrows | | | along the contours of the land. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Countryside Stewardship | A scheme where farmers compete | | | for grants for a range of | | | activities that benefit the | | | environment or improved amenity | | | value for the public. This | | | replaced ESS in 2015. (Don't | | | confuse this with the Countryside | | | Stewardship Scheme) | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Countryside Stewardship Scheme | A scheme where farmers could get | | | grants for a range of activities | | | that benefit the environment or | | | improved amenity value for the | | | public. (Don't confuse this with | | | Countryside Stewardship) | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Crop rotation | The practise of growing a | | | different crop in a field on a | | | cycle of three, four or five | | | years | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Crop wild relatives (CWRs) | These are wild plant varieties or | | | species that are closely related | | | to domesticated crops. CWRs may | | | contain genetic characteristics | | | that can be used in crop breeding | | | programmes. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Crossbreeding | Producing offspring by mating | | | parents of two different breeds | | | or varieties DEFRA Department for | | | Environment, Food and Rural | | | Affairs. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | DEFRA | DEFRA is a government department | | | responsible for many issues | | | including environmental | | | protection, agriculture, | | | fisheries and rural communities | | | in the UK. It designates or | | | manages Ramsar Sites, the UK BAP, | | | the Environmental Stewardship | | | Scheme | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Efficiency | A measure of the amount of | | | product compared with the inputs | | | usually expressed as a | | | percentage. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Embryo transfer | The transfer of fertilised eggs | | | or embryos from one female to | | | another, such | | | | | | as from a rare species into a | | | female of a closely related | | | species that is more | | | | | | common. This enables more young | | | to be produced than could be | | | achieved | | | | | | through normal breeding. It is | | | also used in livestock breeding. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Endemic pest | A pest that is normally present | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Environmental Stewardship | An agri-environmental scheme | | | where farmers receive payments | | Scheme (ESS) | for farm | | | | | | management practices that benefit | | | wildlife and the environment. | | | Higher | | | | | | payments are available for | | | organic farms. Management | | | practices that score | | | | | | points towards the required score | | | include aspects of the management | | | of | | | | | | hedgerows, ditches, field | | | margins, beetle banks, in-field | | | trees and drystone | | | | | | walls. It was replaced by | | | Countryside Stewardship. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Environmentally Sensitive Area | A rural area in which farmers | | | received grants for maintaining | | | the traditional | | | | | | land management methods to | | | protect wildlife and landscape | | | features. It | | | | | | was replaced in 2014 by other | | | agri-environmental schemes. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Enzyme function | Enzymes are protein molecules | | | that enable reactions in cells to | | | take place | | | | | | by reducing the activation energy | | | required for the reaction to | | | occur. Each | | | | | | enzyme is specific to particular | | | reactions. | | | | | | Enzyme function is inhibited by | | | extreme conditions such as high | | | | | | temperature, low pH or the | | | presence of toxic chemicals. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Epidemic pest | A pest that is not normally a | | | problem but may become a serious | | | pest when the population suddenly | | | increases | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Eradication | The reduction of the population | | | of a species by removal or | | | culling | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Ethylene | Chemical that stimulates fruit | | | ripening | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Extensive agriculture/aquaculture | Agriculture/aquaculture where the | | | yield is achieved with low levels | | | of inputs, often over a large | | | area. Productivity is usually low | | | (yield per unit area) but | | | efficiency is usually high (yield | | | per unit input). | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | F1 hybrid | The first generation of offspring | | | produced by breeding from two | | | distinct | | | | | | true-breeding varieties. All the | | | offspring have the same | | | combinations of characteristics. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Food conversion ratios (FCRs) | A measure of the efficiency with | | | which an organism converts its | | | food into its own increasing | | | biomass. FCR = mass of food | | | needed to produce one unit of | | | | | | new tissue. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Genetic engineering/genetic | The method of altering an | | modification (GM) | organism's genetic makeup by | | | artificially introducing genes | | | from another organism, often of | | | another species. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | GM | Genetic modification | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Green Revolution | The agricultural changes since | | | the mid-20th century, where high | | | yielding cereal varieties were | | | bred to increase food production, | | | especially of rice and wheat in | | | tropical LEDCs | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Haber Process | The industrial process that | | | combines nitrogen from air with | | | hydrogen from natural gas to | | | produce ammonia from which | | | nitrate fertilisers can be made | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Halophyte | An organism that thrives in | | | conditions with a high salt | | | concentration | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Herbivore | An animal that only eats plant | | | food e.g. cows, sheep | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Heterosis | The hybrid vigour produced by | | | breeding between two organisms | | | that are not closely related | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Heterotroph | An organism that gains its | | | organic compounds for energy and | | | growth from other organisms e.g. | | | animals, fungi and many bacteria | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Horizontal gene transfer | The transfer of genetic material | | | between organisms without normal | | | breeding taking place e.g. the | | | transfer of genes that give | | | pesticide or antibiotic | | | resistance between bacteria | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Hybrid | A variety produced by breeding | | | from two different breeds or | | | varieties | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Hybrid vigour | The good health achieved by | | | breeding between breeds that are | | | not closely | | | | | | related. This reduces the risk of | | | inbreeding and recessive gene | | | diseases | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Inbreeding | This involves breeding between | | | closely related individuals. It | | | increases the | | | | | | risk of recessive genes producing | | | offspring with disadvantageous | | | | | | characteristics | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Inorganic nutrients | Plant nutrients such as compounds | | | of nitrogen and phosphorus e.g. | | | nitrates and phosphates | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Intensive agriculture/aquaculture | Agriculture/aquaculture where the | | | yield is achieved with high | | | levels of inputs. Productivity is | | | usually high (yield per unit | | | area) but efficiency is | | | | | | usually low (yield per unit | | | input) | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | IR8 | A Green Revolution rice variety | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Leachate Drainage | Water that carries other | | | substances, either in solution or | | | as suspended solids. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | LEDC | Less Economically Developed | | | Country | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Legumes | Plants with symbiotic nitrogen | | | fixing bacteria in root nodules | | | e.g. peas and beans | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Limiting factor | An environmental factor presents | | | in insufficient amounts to allow | | | a process | | | | | | to occur at a faster rate e.g. a | | | nutrient being the limiting | | | factor for plant | | | | | | growth | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Macronutrient | A plant nutrient needed in large | | | amounts: N, P, K | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Marshall Plan | A US scheme after the 2nd World | | | War to provide food aid to Europe | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Maximum Sustainable Yield (MSY) | The greatest amount that can be | | | harvested sustainably | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Micronutrient | A nutrient needed in small | | | amounts | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Macronutrient | A nutrient required in large | | | amounts | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Micropropagation | A tissue culture method where | | | large numbers of plants can be | | | produced from a tissue sample | | | from an original plant, without | | | the need for seeds. The | | | | | | young plants may be raised on | | | agar under sterile conditions | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Monoculture | The growth of a single type of | | | crop, usually over a large area | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Mulch | Material placed on the soil | | | surface to reduce evaporation | | | losses and reduce weed growth | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Multicopying | A form of polyculture where two | | | or more different crops are grown | | | in an area at the same time | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Mycorrhizal fungi | Symbiotic fungi associated with | | | plant roots that gain | | | carbohydrates from | | | | | | the plants and aid the uptake of | | | nutrients by the plants, such as | | | phosphates | | | | | | from the soil | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Neonicotinoids | A widely used group of | | | insecticides. They have been | | | linked with the deaths | | | | | | of bees, especially when they act | | | synergistically with some | | | fungicides | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | NPP Net Primary Productivity | The energy captured by | | | photosynthesis that is not used | | | in respiration | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Nutrient | Any chemical that is essential to | | | an organism for growth or for | | | metabolic processes | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Omnivore | An organism that eats plant and | | | animal foods e.g. pigs | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Organic nutrients | High-energy nutrients, such as | | | carbohydrates, lipids and | | | proteins from plant or animal | | | material | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Organochlorine pesticide | Insecticide group e.g. DDT, | | | dieldrin, aldrin. Most are now | | | banned or restricted because they | | | are persistent, bioaccumulate and | | | biomagnified | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Organophosphate pesticide | Insecticide group e.g. parathion, | | | malathion. They are not | | | persistent but have high | | | mammalian toxicity | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Pasture | An area of land used for grazing | | | livestock | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Permaculture | An agricultural system that | | | incorporates the principles of | | | natural ecosystems | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Pesticide | A chemical that is used to kill | | | pest species: organisms that | | | damage crops, livestock or cause | | | disease | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Pheromone trap | A trap that attracts organisms | | | using the scent of pheromones. | | | They can be | | | | | | used to try to catch all the | | | members of one gender of a | | | species to stop | | | | | | breeding, but are usually used to | | | show the presence of a pest | | | species | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Pheromone | A chemical released by an | | | organism that changes the | | | behaviour of other members of the | | | same species, especially to | | | attract a mate | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Photoautotroph | An organism that produces | | | high-energy food substances using | | | sunlight in photosynthesis | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Ploughing | The cultivation of the soil by | | | turning over the surface layer | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Pollination | The transfer of the male plant | | | gamete onto the female part of a | | | flower, | | | | | | resulting in fertilisation and | | | seed production. Pollen may be | | | carried by the | | | | | | wind or by animals such as bees, | | | beetles and moths | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Polyculture | An agriculture/aquaculture system | | | involving the growth of more than | | | one species in the same area at | | | the same time | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Productivity | A measure of the yield of a | | | system, often expressed as the | | | yield per unit area, time or | | | input | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Pyrethroids Synthetic | Insecticide pesticides, based on | | | the natural chemicals originally | | | | | | extracted from chrysanthemum | | | flowers (pyrethrins). They are | | | not persistent | | | | | | and have low mammalian toxicity | +-----------------------------------+--------------------------