Vegetable Crops Production and Management in Ethiopia (Grade 12) PDF

Subject: Agriculture Grade: 12 Unit 1. Vegetable Crops Production and Management 1. **Importance, problems and prospect of vegetable crops production in Ethiopia** *Vegetables*: are plants whose fruit, seeds, roots, tubers, bulbs, stems, leaves, or flower parts are used as food. Vegetables...

Subject: Agriculture Grade: 12 Unit 1. Vegetable Crops Production and Management 1. **Importance, problems and prospect of vegetable crops production in Ethiopia** *Vegetables*: are plants whose fruit, seeds, roots, tubers, bulbs, stems, leaves, or flower parts are used as food. Vegetables are diverse in their growth cycles. Some are annuals. Others are biennials. Still others are perennials. *Herbaceous:* are plants that have no persistent woody stems above the ground. Vegetables constitute different types of plants including viny, shrubby, or tree in their growth habits. They are usually harvested fresh - when their moisture contents are high. This distinguishes them from field grain crops which are often harvested at mature stage. Vegetables are seasonal, perishable, and bulky in relation to their volume. They require intensive management. They are vulnerable to damage and cannot be stored for a long time. 1. **Importance** The most important vegetable crops in Ethiopia include: pepper, Ethiopian mustard/kale, onion, tomato, potato, chili, carrot, garlic and cabbage. Cabbages, tomatoes and garlic are mainly produced for domestic consumption whereas green beans and peas are mainly produced for export purposes. In Ethiopia, vegetable crops are produced for various important economic activities. Many smallholder farmers and large-scale commercial producers are engaged in vegetable crop production. *Smallholder farmers*: are farmers that own an average landholding size of 0.9 hectare Smallholders mainly produce vegetable crops for own consumption but commercial private farms produce solely for the market. In addition, the country earns hundred millions of dollars every year from export of vegetables. They are mainly exported to the Middle East, Europe, Djibouti and Somalia. Vegetables like tomato and chilli are among the major vegetables exported. Smallholder farmers choose to grow vegetables due to: - Relatively shorter growth cycle of the - Compared to cereals, vegetables have a relatively higher value. - Vegetable production has a higher potential to increase employment and household income. - It is profitable activity. Compared to cereal crops, vegetables are often intensively managed and require special care after harvest because they are highly perishable and need to be stored and transported carefully in order to preserve their fresh quality. Public awareness about nutritional and health benefits of vegetables has been increasing recently through public health advocacy. An increased consumption of vegetables reduces hidden hunger (i.e., micronutrient deficiency) in children. Micronutrient deficiency is associated with the deficiency of essential vitamins and minerals. Vegetables such as spinach, tomato, etc. are often good sources of iron, zinc, and iodine. Vegetables are rich sources of vitamin A, vitamin C (ascorbic acid), thiamine, niacin, folic acid and beta carotene. Beta carotene is responsible for the normal functioning of the visual process and the structure of the eye. Prolonged deficiency of Beta carotene leads to blindness. Leguminous and leafy vegetables are rich sources of proteins. Another reason for an increasing demand for vegetables is the increasing prices of animal products like meat, milk and eggs. Vegetables are also raw materials for local processing industries. Local processing industries produce products like tomato paste and different juice types. Increased demand for vegetables has encouraged investment in the sector both by national and international commercial producers. 2. **Potentials and opportunities** - Vegetable production has enormous potential to contribute to the national economy and the livelihood of the farmers in the country. - Regarding to opportunities Ethiopia has favorable climate, abundant labour, vast land and water resources, and diverse climatic zones ranging from 126 metres below sea level to 4620 metres above sea level. This high range altitude gives the country a wide range of climatic diversity. The climate varies from humid tropics to Alpine climates. These are suitable climates for vegetable production. *Agro-ecology:* relationships which organisms have among themselves and with the surrounding physical environment in agriculture. *Alpine Climate:* Climate of high mountain regions/highlands. *Humid tropics:* Regions with relatively high temperature throughout the year and where rainfall exceeds evapotranspiration for 75% of the year. The land currently used for vegetable production in Ethiopia is extremely small. However, vegetable production yields per unit area, as well as the amount of land used for production of the crops, is increasing because of: - an increase in public awareness about health benefits of vegetables, - expansion small scale irrigation - government support for investors - incentives in the form of tax exemptions - local demand for vegetables - export of vegetables 3. **Constraints** Compared to cereal crop production, vegetable production and consumption in the in Ethiopia is low because of the following major constraints. - inadequate knowledge of improved methods of production and marketing, - low consumption of vegetables - high cost of production inputs like fertilizers, improved seeds and pesticides - poor management - small size of vegetable processing facilities - poor soil fertility pests drought, - postharvest losses, - high price of fuel for pumping water for irrigation 1. **Environmental factors influencing vegetable production** Various environmental factors influence vegetable production. These factors are: - Climatic (temperature, light, precipitation, etc.) - Soil which include the chemical, physical and nutritional status of the soil and - Topographic factors. - Biotic factors include insects, diseases and weeds. 1. **Temperature** Temperature is an important environmental variable that affects various processes during plant growth and development. Plant growth and development processes affected by temperature are: - Photosynthesis - Respiration - Transpiration - Germination - Flowering. Photosynthesis, respiration and transpiration increase with increasing temperature up to a certain point. Temperature also influences the shift from vegetative growth to reproductive growth stage. Temperature determines the types of crops that grow successfully in a given location and their yield levels. Vegetables have their minimum, maximum and optimum temperature ranges. Crops that originate in temperate regions have lower temperature requirements whereas crops originating in tropical regions require warmer temperatures. Soil temperature directly affects seed germination, root development and absorption of nutrients and water by the roots. Warmer soil temperature generally increases the rates of these processes. The size, shape and quality of harvestable parts of vegetable crops are also affected by soil temperature. Tropical and sub-tropical vegetables may be damaged at temperatures below 10 0C. This is called chilling injury. Some vegetable crops require exposure to low temperature before moving from vegetative to reproductive growth stages. This process is known as vernalization. The Biennials and some of the cool season vegetables (e.g., onion, carrot, etc.) initiate flower formation after extended exposure to low temperature. 2. **Water** Fresh vegetables contain a high level of water -- often between 80% and 90% of their weight is made up of water. The following points demonstrate the roles of water in crop production: - germination and growth of crops start only when water is available - organic and inorganic compounds absorbed by plants are dissolved in water - water is required in the process of photosynthesis - water is important in cell division, enlargement and turgidity - too little or too much water is harmful for plant growth - water shortage during critical growth stages directly affects yields - Insufficient water supply during early plant growth stages results in the stunted growth of plants, and significantly reduces yield. In addition, temporary shortage of water during critical growth stages (e.g., flowering, seed setting or germination) is damaging. 3. **Light** *Succulent*: a plant such as a cactus in which the leaves and stem are thick and can store a lot of water Light is the key element in photosynthesis. Plants grown in full light develop vigorously with high chlorophyll amount and high photosynthetic activity. Plants grown in reduced light have lower chlorophyll amounts and are often succulent. The length of the light period (day length) and its quality varies according to the season of the year, altitude and latitude. Some plants change their growth in response to day length. Long-day plants flower when the night is short (usually less than 12 hours). Short day plants flower when the night is long (usually more than 12 hours). Plants that are not affected by day length are called day-neutral plant. These plants can flower under any light period. 4. **Humidity** Humidity refers to the amount of water vapour in the atmosphere. A high level of atmospheric humidity is often associated with incidence of crop diseases and pests. Humidity affects plant growth and development through its effect on plant transpiration from leaves. - In humid atmosphere, the stomata open and allow diffusion of carbon dioxide, oxygen and water vapour. This allows active photosynthesis and nutrient absorption. - Very high humidity could cause increased germination of certain fungal species which damages the plants. - Excessive humidity could also close stomata which would mean overheating of plants as it limits evaporative cooling. - Low humidity is also harmful for the plant and result in increased transpiration and this may attract some pest types. Green plants convert water absorbed through root and carbon dioxide absorbed through the leaf into carbohydrates in the presence of sunlight through photosynthesis and produce oxygen. 5. **Altitude** Temperature and rainfall of an area are determined by the altitude of the area in relative to sea level. With 100m increase in altitude, there is 0.6 0~C~ decrease in temperature. This affects vegetable production. Vegetables vary in their temperature and water requirements. In Ethiopia, the highlands have high rainfall and low temperature. This is often suitable for vegetable production. The lowlands have lower rainfall, but higher temperature and are less suitable for vegetable production. 6. **Soil** Soil type, soil fertility and soil structure contribute to the growth and yield levels of crops. The type of soil determines whether or not it stores sufficient water for plants to grow. It also determines if soil compaction or water lodging may be a problem. Slow emergence and seedling growth in compacted soils increases a time a vegetable plant is vulnerable to disease, insects and weeds. The soil provides nutrients, water and physical support for roots of plants. Soil texture refers to the particle size the soil contains. The relevant soil particles are: - Sand (the biggest size of the three); Have predominantly high level of pore space. This allows the availability of air and free drainage. It does not store much water for plants. - silt (is of medium size) - Clay (is the smallest size particle). Clay dominated soils drain very slowly and can cause excess water accumulation. This, in turn, causes shortage of air for roots and soil organisms. *Compaction*: is process in which soil is pressed down, (e.g., by heavy loads) and becomes very firm with little space between its particles. *Pore space:* refers to the space between soil particles. It is used for air circulation and water storage. Roots grow into the soil through the pore space. 7. **Biotic factors** Biotic factors refer to organisms like bacteria, fungi, nematodes, viruses, weeds and animals. The presence of these harmful organisms in the environment limits crop productivity. Vegetable crop selection should consider the adaptability of the crop to a given environment and resistance to common diseases and pests. 2. **Classification of vegetable crops** Vegetables can be classified into different groups. - Root vegetables: these are vegetables whose roots are consumed as food. These include: carrot, garlic, radish, cassava, sweet potato and beet. - Leafy Vegetables: these are vegetables grown for their leaves or stems. Examples, Cabbage, Swiss chard, celery, lettuce and asparagus are some - Flower Vegetables: these are vegetables grown for their flowers. Cauliflower and broccoli are examples of flower vegetables. Vegetables can also be classified based on: - Temperatures that produce optimum yields. - Ability of the vegetable to flower, to set fruit and to produce seeds in different climatic region - Warm season and cool season vegetable crops. Warm season vegetable crops are: - Tropical and sub-tropical region crops - They are adapted to temperatures ranging from 18 to 29^o^~C~. - These vegetables grow well only in warm areas. - They cannot tolerate frosts. - They are sometimes called tender plants. Example: Cucumber, eggplant, pepper, snap bean, sweet potato, tomato and water melon are warm season vegetables). Cool season vegetable crops are: - Vegetable crops of the temperate region - Grow well in relatively cooler regions. - They referred to as 'hardy plants', as they can tolerate frost without injury. (Examples of such vegetables include broccoli, celery, cabbage, garlic, kale, onion, pea, radish and spinach). - Annuals: these are vegetable crops that complete their life cycle in a single year. Most vegetables are annuals, including spinach, lettuce and beans. - Biennials: vegetable crops that require two growing seasons to complete their life cycle (Examples include carrot, cabbage and beet). - Perennials: Perennial vegetables grow for more than two growing seasons. These vegetables can stay in production as long as ten years. Such crops include asparagus and artichoke. 3. **Types of vegetable production systems** Vegetable production has evolved from primitive gathering of wild vegetables to more advanced and specialized types of vegetable production systems. There are several types of vegetable production systems. 8. **Gathering of wild vegetables** This involves collection of edible parts from wild vegetable crops. Such crops include shola, wild mango tree, leaves of moringa (shiferaw) tree, sama, water berry or 'Dokma', 'Agam', 'Kega' (wild Ethiopian rose) and others. Several weeds are also consumed as vegetables including Amaranthus. 9. **Vegetables grown mixed with cereal crops** - Ethiopian mustard grows mixed with maize crop. - Taro and kale can grow mixed with coffee plants. Most of the times, vegetables are grown in places that cannot be used for growing cereals. 10. **Home gardening** Home gardening is the practice of allocating land close to the homestead for vegetable production. This system supplies much of the vegetable demand of the household. Home gardening vegetables are used for household demand and source of income. Various vegetables including fruit, seed, leafy and root vegetables are grown together. Such home gardens are very common in the Ethiopian smallholder farming systems. Household organic wastes can be used to fertilize the plots close to the house. 11. **Commercial vegetable production** Commercial vegetable production is mainly market-oriented production that is dependent on market demand. This is common around urban centres to ease transportation of vegetable crops to the market. Such systems are usually intensively managed with generous use of agricultural inputs. Fertilizers, pesticides, irrigation and machinery are examples of such inputs. 4. **Principles of vegetable crops management** 12. **Site selection and management for vegetable crops** Selection and management of site for vegetable production involves: - Taking into account the history of the site and soil properties (land use history, soil pollution issues, availability and quality of water resources). - Consider possible effects of adjacent crop production. - Topography of the area should be taken into account. Gentle slopes are suitable for vegetable production. Steepness of the slope accelerates soil erosion. 13. **Sustainability management** Sustainability of a farm can be ensured by recording reliable information includes: - level of the yield, - crop varieties grown, - quantity and type of fertilizer applied, - quantity and type of pesticides applied, - irrigation applied and other inputs used, - Soil analysis results, - agricultural techniques used - Information about market, sales, market demand, prices, etc. 14. **Planting material** When selecting the planting material to be used, factors that should be carefully considered include: - adaptation to local conditions, - resistance to pests and diseases, - Whether it meets the consumer demand in terms of product quality 15. **Integrated crop management** Crop rotation could be practiced in annual vegetable production to improve disease and pest control. Diverse crop rotations are effective in reducing pest/disease development. Over dependence on chemicals for crop pest and disease control should be avoided as much as possible. Planning of crop should consider previous crop protection practices used. During integrated crop management, a balanced nutrient supply for the crop is needed. A balanced supply produces quality vegetable crop with minimal nutrient losses. In planning fertilizer application, it is necessary to consider nutrients coming from organic matter decay. Organic fertilizers and soil analysis shows soil nutrient content and soil properties. The use of fertilizer should be limited to the intended crop area. 16. **Water** It is important to use water in vegetable production economically. Soil moisture conservation practices should also be implemented to increase availability of water in dry areas. Irrigation with groundwater should be started only after assessment of the groundwater resources. If irrigation is used, the amount and timing should be in accordance with the crop requirement. The quality of irrigation water is very important and should be monitored closely. Besides, fertilizers should be stored in dry and clean location. This avoids water contamination in the vegetable production area. *Profitability of Vegetable crop production*: Marketing is one of the most important factors that determine the success of any crop production including vegetable. Marketing starts with the decisions made by producers including choosing the crop types, does not begin after the crops have been produced, rather before their production. **Unit 2. Fruit Crop Production and Management** 1. Key terms in fruit production *Fruit crop:* is a perennial, edible plant cultivated for its true botanical fruit or products derived there from. *Fruit set*: refers to the persistence and development of an ovary after flowering. *Orchard:* a farm land allocated for growing fruit crops *Asexual propagation:* is a vegetative reproduction or propagation where fertilization is not involved in the production of the crop. *Chilling injury:* injury from prolonged exposure to low, non-freezing temperatures. Chilling injury affects tropical fruits. The injury results in discoloration, pitting, and flesh breakdown in susceptible species. *Chilling requirement:* The time of exposure to cool, nonfreezing temperatures during winter. This allows normal bud break and development to take place the following spring. 2. **Importance, problems and potential of fruit crops production in Ethiopia** 1. Importance of Fruit crop production in Ethiopia Fruits are inexpensive source of energy. They contain nutrients, minerals and vitamins. Their nutritional value is highest when consumed fresh. Fruit crops can be produced for both domestic consumption and selling. This improves the household food security and income. The purpose of large-scale production of fruit crops goes beyond the local consumption. Fruit crops can be exported abroad. When exported, they are a good source of foreign currency for a country. Fruit production is: - an important component of agriculture. - has a vital role to play in the farmers' livelihood. - contribute to the food and nutritional security of the producing communities. - profitable and good for the environment. - enhances natural resource conservation and maintenance. - vital in diversifying the national economy. - the basis for establishing agro processing industries which reduce unemployment. There is an increasing public awareness about the nutritional and health benefits of fruits in Ethiopia today. This has resulted in an increase in the market demand. Major fruit crops produced in the country include pineapples, passion fruits, bananas, avocados, mangoes, citrus fruits, mandarin, papaya, guava(ዜይቱን) and grapes(ወይን) are among the major fruit crops in the country. 2. **Problems of Fruit crops production in Ethiopia** Fruit production is relatively new to Ethiopian agricultural system. The introductions of a commercial fruit production were introduced in the late 1960s and the early 1970s. Most indigenous fruits are wild. Most fruits produced in the household gardens and on commercial farms are recent introductions into the country. Their management is also new to producers, merchants and consumers. Fruit production and utilization have many technical, economic and social problems that must be identified and tackled to make the industry viable and sustainable. This needs the effort of producers, processors, merchants and researchers. Very few small-scale commercial farms produce fruits primarily for local consumption. Some farmers produce fruits for local markets, particularly in the areas most suitable for fruit production. Over the last few years, however, some changes have been observed in the production, marketing and consumption of fruits in Ethiopia. Success in modern fruit production depends on knowledge, skill and technical competences of the producers. Technical knowledge in proper production, management and storage is lacking among most small scale producers. This limits productivity of the fruit sector. 3. **Prospects of fruit crop production in Ethiopia** Ethiopia has diverse agro-ecologies, ample water resources and cheap labor. These can enhance fruit production in the country. Also, Ethiopia is located close to the Middle East and European markets. The government has introduced and implemented attractive policies to enhance the contribution of the fruit production sector to the overall economy. Given all these, the sector has a huge potential to improving the livelihood of fruit-producing communities. If fully exploited with proper production and management systems, the sector has a promising potential to markedly support the national economy. 3. **Classification of fruit crops** Fruits are classified into groups on the basis of structure, temperature requirement, and plant characteristic, ripening response or response to ethylene. 4. **Classification based on structure** All fruits may be classified into three major groups on the basis of the number of ovaries and flowers involved in their formation. They are Simple fruit, aggregate fruit, and multiple fruit. *Simple Fruits*: develop from a single mature ovary in a single flower. Examples: apple, grape and citrus fruits. Simple fruits can further be classified into the following: - Fleshy Fruits: pericarp fleshy at maturity. Example: grapes, bananas - Dry Fruits: Pericarps dry at maturity. Example: coconut, peanut - Dehiscent fruits: These are examples of fruits that dehisce or split open when fully mature. Example: silique - Indehiscent fruits: Indehiscent fruits do not split open; they do not release seeds at maturity. Example: Pome, sunflowers *Aggregate Fruits:* consist of a number of mature ovaries formed in a single flower and arranged over the surface of a single receptacle. The individual ovaries are called fruitlets. Example: strawberry *Multiple fruits*: consist of the mature ovaries of several flowers fairly united into a mass. Example: Pineapple 5. Classification based on temperature requirement *Tropical fruits*: are fruits which grow in a year-round summer-like growing season without freezing temperatures. Examples: Banana, pineapple, papaya, mango and guava. *Sub-tropical fruits:* These fruit types cannot tolerate severe winter temperatures; they need some winter chilling. Example: citrus, figs(የሾላ ፍሬ), and olives(የወይራ ፍሬ). *Temperate fruits:* require a cold winter season as well as a summer growing season. They can survive temperatures considerably below a freezing point. Examples are apples, cherries and peaches. 6. **Classification based on ripening/ response to ethylene** Fruits can be divided into two groups: Climacteric fruits and non-climacteric fruits. The classification is based on the regulatory mechanisms underlying their ripening process. - Climacteric fruit: These fruits are characterized by a ripening-associated increase in respiration and in ethylene production. The ethylene is the major trigger and coordinator of the ripening process. E.g. tomato, apple, pear, and melon. - Non-climacteric fruits: are characterized by the lack of ethylene associated respiratory peak and the signaling pathways that drive the ripening process e.g. grape, orange and pineapple. 7. **Classification based on plant characteristics** *Tree fruit:* These are fruits produced on trees like peach, plum, mango, citrus, avocado, guava, mango, coffee, apple, etc. *Small fruit:* are fruits produced on shrubs like blackberry, raspberry, blueberries, etc. 4. **Principles and techniques of fruit propagation** Crop plants can be propagated by either sexual methods or asexual (vegetative) methods. Both methods have their own advantages and disadvantages. Some crops can be propagated in both methods but others are propagated through only sexual or asexual method. 8. **Sexual plant propagation** Sexual plant propagation is developing plant from seed. The method is also called seed propagation. The seed is made up of three parts: the outer seed coat, the endosperm and the embryo. The outer seed coat protects the seed. The endosperm is a food reserve while the embryo is the young plant itself. When a mature seed is exposed to a favorable environment, it germinates and begins its active growth. Pre-sowing treatments are methods applied to overcome seed dormancy. *Seed dormancy:* A period during which seed is not growing. This ensures rapid, uniform and timely seed germination that facilitates seedling production. Pre-sowing treatments are applied to seeds immediately before sowing. Most methods require from a few minutes to 24 hours. However, some pre-sowing methods require a few to several days. Appropriate pre-sowing treatment methods depend on the dormancy characteristics of the seed being treated. The most common pre-sowing treatment methods to break seed dormancy are: - soaking in hot/cold water, - fire or heating methods, - soaking in chemical or alternate wetting and drying. *Advantages of Sexual Plant Propagation* - It is the easiest and least expensive method of plant propagation - Seedling trees are hardier and have longer life span - Allows propagation of plants which are difficult to propagate by vegetative method e.g. papaya, phalsa, coconut, etc. - The rootstocks for budding and grafting are obtained by means of sexual propagation - Sexually propagated plants can be more resistant to pests and disease - Poly-embryonic varieties (giving rise to more than one seedling from one seed) can be propagated by seed. - Seedlings take more time to bear fruits (late bearing) - Quality of existing plants cannot be improved by sexual propagation - Plants propagated sexually are large. This raises the cost of fertilization, pruning and spraying chemical. - There is no guarantee about genetic purity of plant - Identification of sex in seedling is not possible The main requirement for sexual plant propagation is fresh, viable and quality seeds, seedbed, containers and nursery soil mixture. Containers are poly-bags and pots. Nursery soil mixtures are forest soil, sand, farm yard manure, usually in the ratio of 2:1:1, respectively. *Viable seed:* seed that is capable of germinating under suitable conditions. *Seedbed*: an area of land tilled to produce a fine, firm and level soil surface, into which seeds will be sown. *Cross pollination*: pollination of a flower with pollen from another plant of the same species. *Genetic purity*: the degree of contamination of seeds caused by undesired genetic varieties or crop species. 9. **Asexual Plant Propagation** Vegetative parts or fragments of plants such as leaves, stems, and roots are used for plant multiplication (propagation). These plant parts may be taken from a single mother plant or other from multiple plants. Asexually propagated trees are exact copies of their mother plants and bear the same type of fruit. The asexual methods most often are cuttings, air layering, and grafting, budding and micro propagation. The material used for asexual propagation is obtained from a plant in the adult phase. The plants created through asexual propagation and bear fruit upon receiving the external signal that induces flower development and will not have a juvenile phase unlike a plant from seed. *Cuttings፡* Plants can be propagated by using cuttings in which apportion of a stem, root, or leaf is cut from the parent plant, placed under certain favorable environmental conditions and induced to form roots and shoots. This produces a new, independent plant which is identical to the parent plant. The stem cutting can be divided into three groups, according to the nature of the wood used: hardwood, semi-hardwood, and softwood cutting. The stem cutting is one of the most important plant propagation types in fruit propagation *Adventitious root* is specialized root that develop from a non-root tissue part of the plant, such as stem, branch or leaves. *Air layering፡* is an asexual plant propagation method. In air layering a portion of plant is forced to produce adventitious roots without detaching it from the parent plant. It is usually used in plant species that are particularly difficult to root. For example plants such as camellia, azalea, rhododendron, holly, etc. Air layering the intact stems allow a continuous supply of water, nutrients and plant hormones to the place of root development. Once the adventitious roots are developed, the plant is detached from the parent plant and starts to grow as an independent plant. This method is similar to propagation by cutting except that it is only detached from the parent plant after developing its own root system. When the roots are well formed, the air-layered branches are cut from the tree and either planted direct in the field or first planted in a container of soil and later set in the field. Air layering is performed in steps: - well developed stool (parent plant) is selected, - one shoot is bent to the soil while the others might be harvested, - the bending shoot starts to root while the harvested one re- grows - the bending shoot becomes an independent plant *Grafting*፡ is the joining of parts of plants together in such a way that they unite and continue to grow as a single plant. The part of the plant that becomes the upper portion or top of the new plant (canopy) is called the scion. The part which becomes the lower portion that includes the root system is called the stock or root stock. All methods of joining plants are called grafting. Several grafting methods are used but, cleft or wedge grafting is the most common field level practice. Cleft or wedge grafting has a good chance of success. The stock and the scion must be compatible, or they will not unite. Grafting should involve only closely related species or plant families. For example, avocado is primarily propagated commercially by grafting upon seedling rootstocks. Grafting requires experience and practice. The requirements below should be fulfilled to improve the performance of grafting method. - Cambial regions of scions and stock must be in intimate contact for successful grafting - Suitable variety should be selected both for stock and scion in terms of being healthy, strong and free from pests - Cut surfaces should be held tightly for proper healing and flow of water and nutrients - After grafting, all cut surfaces must be protected from drying out. This can be done by covering the graft area with wax or tape or some moist material - Proper care must be given to the graft until the stock and scion unite - Shoots from the stock must be removed to stop their competition for resources like nutrients and water with the scion - Shoots from the scion can grow so vigorously that they break the scion off unless tied - The grafting knife should always be kept razor sharp during grafting operations *Cambial region:* A layer of actively dividing cells situated between the xylem and phloem. *Root Stock:* The basic root or stem onto which a scion is united to produce grafted fruit trees. *Scion:* the upper part of one plant joined to the root stock in grafted fruits or trees. *Bud:* a young shoot on a plant, which may later become a leaf or a flower. 5. **Establishing a nursery** A nursery is a managed site, where plants are cared during their early growth stages. The purpose of a nursery is to provide young plants with suitable conditions for germination and subsequent growth. Young seedlings of tropical fruits need special care during early growth stages. For example, they need protection from severe heat from the sun. Heavy rain, drought, pests and diseases damage seedlings. The selection of a proper site is as important as the planting system. Planting distance is also a matter to be carefully considered. Successful fruit production involves proper selection of plants and their varieties. *Site selection for nursery*: Proper site for nursery establishment should fulfill the following criteria: - The topography of the area should be gently slope - There should be a continuous and sufficient supply of water - The site should not be exposed to strong winds or protected with well-established windbreak - It should be well drained and have fertile soil - The area should be separated from production field but must be located near main field - There should be an adequate, dependable labor supply. - The area to be selected should be free from flooding - It should not be close to shade of trees or buildings *Seedlings*: could be raised in nursery beds or in polythene bags. Raising seedlings in polythene bags often gives better seedlings. This is because the tap root system is often not disturbed. It also saves labor for weeding and watering. Many problems in fruit production can be avoided by taking good care at the nursery stage of fruit development. 6. **Management of Orchards** 10. Irrigation Irrigation is the practice of applying controlled amount of water to the land to help grow crops, landscape plants and lawns. Irrigation has been a key aspect of agriculture for over 5,000 years and has been developed by many cultures around the world. Irrigation helps to grow crops, maintain landscapes, and vegetate disturbed soils in dry areas and during times of below average rainfall. It is important to consider the quality of irrigation water in terms of salt content the amount of irrigation water and the irrigation time. The fruit producer needs to avoid excessive irrigation as well as irrigation below crop requirements. Both can reduce yields. Irrigation is usually practiced either in the morning or late in the afternoon to reduce loss of water through evaporation. *Irrigation Methods*: used can be either surface irrigation or pressurized (power driven) systems. The surface irrigation systems can be divided into basin, flooding or furrow irrigation. a. Surface or gravity irrigation: water is applied directly to the surface. E.g. flood irrigation, furrow irrigation. - easy to maintain - requires Low cost - do not need any modern technology - It works effectively in a low filtration rate. - Technical skill is not required. - Level lands require high accuracy - Not applicable on soil with a high filtration rate. - Plants are always covered with water even when they do not need it. - Sometimes limited space gets more water than required. - No drainage outlet. b. Pressurized irrigation methods: In pressurized irrigation systems water is pressurized and precisely applied to the plants under pressure through a system of pipes. Pressurized irrigation systems, as opposed to the surface irrigation systems, are more effective in application of irrigation water to the crops. The pressurized irrigation type can be done through the use of either a sprinkler or through drip irrigation. *Sprinkler irrigation system*: irrigation water is sprayed to the air and allowed to fall to the ground as rain/ mist. Advantages - Suitable for soil with high infiltration rate - Fertigation is possible - Practiced in not-levelled field surface - Costly to install and to maintain - Wind drift of water droplets - Require continuous power supply - Adequate quantity of water. *Drip Irrigation System*: Water is applied through network of pipelines and allowed to fall drop by drop at crop root zone. Advantages - Save water - Facilitates easy infiltration - Maintain moisture at root zone - Fertigation is possible Disadvantages - High maintenance cost - Not economical for closely spaced crops 7. **Factors Influencing the Quality of Fruits during Harvest and Post-harvest** In harvesting fruit crops, the stage of the harvest, time of the harvest and the harvesting methods should be carefully considered to ensure the overall quality of the product. *Stage and time of Harvest*: Maturity at harvest stage is one of the main factors that determine the compositional quality and storage life of fruit, vegetables and flowers. It is thus important to make sure that the fruit crop is at the right stage of harvest before harvesting the fruit crop. Nearly all fruits reach peak eating quality when they are fully ripened on the tree. However, they are usually picked or harvested when they are nearly ripe. *Postharvest handling* *of fruit crops*: Postharvest considerations for fruits are: - pre-cooling: if the fruit is going to be stored for a relatively long time, it has to be pre-cooled to storage temperature immediately after harvest - Sorting and grading: sorting according to size and quality level should be done. - packaging and packaging materials: packaging of for market fruits is vital and the packaging materials should reduce moisture loss from the fruits - storage: before storage, fruits should be cleaned for soil, dirt or insect waste - temperature and relative humidity during storage and transportation: for most fruits, temperatures around freezing point (depending on fruit type) should be used. The relative humidity should be \>90% to minimize water loss from fruits - transportation: fruits should be carefully handled to reduce mechanical injury during transportation. Mechanical injuries enhance disease development. 8. **Floriculture and Landscaping** *Floriculture:* is a branch of horticulture that deals with the cultivation of flowering plants, decorative foliage plants, cacti, orchids, succulents, bonsai, ferns, plants grown in containers as well as landscape gardening. In many of the recent literature, Floriculture is referred as Ornamental Horticulture. *Ornamental plants are:* either plants as such or their plant parts are decorative, showy, attractive, and used for both aesthetic and functional purposes. They can be flowering or non-flowering with decorative nature. *Floriculture in Ethiopia*: Ornamental Horticulture started in Ethiopia recently. Now a days it is increasing and is one of the top export commodity of the country *Opportunities for expansion of Floriculture in Ethiopia* - Suitable climate to produce various flower crops - Ample resources such as land, cheap labor, abundant water etc. - Proximity to Middle East and European markets - Increasing domestic market for flowers - Government policy and investment incentives *Importance of Floriculture in Ethiopia* - Earns foreign currency - Product diversification - Job opportunity for the people - Encourages supportive industries - Promote investment *Important flower crops grown and exported from Ethiopia* - Roses - Poinsettia - Geranium/Pelargonium Chrysanthemum - Lilies - Carnation - Gypsophila Statice - Hypericum - Freesia Unit 3 Root and Tuber Crop Production and Management 1. Definition of common terms - **Root** is part of vascular plant that typically grows underground which play essential role in supporting plants physically and for nutritional uptake. - **Tuber:** Tubers are specialized structure in plants that serve primarily as storage organs for nutrients. - **Root crop** is a crop grown for its enlarged and edible roots. E.g. beet roots, carrot, parsnip, cassava. - **Tuber crops** are crops with swollen underground stems and roots. Potatoes, sweet potatoes and yams, are edible tuber crops. 2. **Classification of root and tuber crops** FAO classifies roots and tuber crops based on their use in to seven primary crops. The major indigenous root and tuber crops find in Ethiopia include: enset, anchote, Ethiopian potato, and yams. The exotic species include taro, tania, cassava, potato, and sweet potato. **Potatoes (Solanum tuberosum)** Potato is a seasonal crop grown in temperate zones all over the world including Ethiopia, but primarily in the northern hemisphere. It is currently the fourth most important food crop in the world after maize, wheat, and rice. **Sweet Potatoes (Ipomoea batatas)** Sweet potato is a seasonal crop grown in tropical and subtropical regions. The origin of sweet potato is Central America, but at present it is widely grown in many tropical and subtropical countries in different ecological regions. Sweet potato can be grown all around the year under suitable climatic conditions; thus it is considered as an "insurance crop" and is typical food security crop. 3. **Importance of root and tuber crops production** Roots and tuber crops play significant roles for food and nutritional security of communities. They play major role to fill food gaps that might exist until harvest of major crops. Root crops in general and sweet potato in particular, are drought resistant and serve as security food crops in drought-prone areas of Ethiopia. They generate income for farmers of Ethiopia by selling the surplus from their production and earn income from it. They are also used for animal feed and raw materials for various industrial applications. 4. **Prospect of root and tuber crops production in Ethiopia** Despite the existences of numerous challenges of agricultural activities, Ethiopia has marvelous opportunity like - Commercial farming investment on root and tuber crops - Huge number of labour force - water resource - Proximity to the Middle East and other African countries to sheep products within a short period of time - Great variety of climate and soil type that can grow diverse horticultural crops for home consumption and foreign markets. 5. **Problems of root and tuber crops production in Ethiopia** Production status of root and tuber crops in Ethiopia remains far below its potential. Several constraints are responsible for this among which: - **Poor access for important inputs** The production of root and tuber crops in Ethiopia is constrained, mainly due to lack of important inputs such as lack of wide adaptive and improved varieties; shortage of quality planting material, ƒ lack of pesticides, weak extension systems that delays distribution of important inputs, Weak Technology transfer system to successfully promote the improved varieties to farmers. - **Disease and pest problems** Diseases and insect pest problem are another major constraint in production of root and tuber sector. Major insect pests of root crop in Ethiopia include aphids, tuber moths, leaf miners, green mite, beetle, butterfly, hornworm and weevil. Pests such as weevil and butterfly on sweet potato, tuber moth on potato and green mite and red spider mite on cassava greatly hampered the productivity of these crops. Major diseases of root and tuber crops in Ethiopia include late blight, virus and bacterial wilt. Late blight constitutes the most serious threat to increased potato production. - **Policy related problem** Ethiopia has pursued a range of policies and investments to boost agricultural production and productivity. This is for the major staple foods such as cereals, to increase the availability of improved seed, chemical fertilizers, and extension services for small-scale, resource-poor farmers. In addition, crop protection strategies in root crops are also regarded as secondary to cereal. For instance, the pesticide coverage for root crops was even lower than pulses. - **Socio-economic problems** Compared to other food crops, production of root and tuber crops is capital-intensive, so that it requires the purchase of large quantity seeds and the application of high cost inputs such as pesticides. lack of money to purchase, weak and limited access to markets, lack of storage, and processing facilities, lack of information services, logistics for distribution of agricultural products, problem on transportation access and post-harvest handling are some of the socio-economic problems of this sector. - **Technical Constraints** The technical constraints such as bulkiness of the crop, phytosanitary restrictions and dry matter content/yields of the crops are major technical constraints of root and tuber crops. 6. **Root and tuber crops managements and Protection** Roots and tuber crops have to be managed effectively to ensure the sustainability in production: ***Land preparation:*** Land should be prepared in line with the requirement of each root and tuber crops ***Irrigation procedures has to be followed carefully:*** The suitability of the irrigation water in terms of total dissolved salts, heavy metal, and microbial load and pH value for vegetable crop production should be evaluated. Evaluate the moisture level of the soil by finger feeling method or in the laboratory Estimate the amount of irrigation water to be applied. Note: the amount of irrigation water depends on the growth stages of the crop; the environmental conditions and the soil type, follow different Procedures of cultivation and fertilizer application, and Remove weeds by cultivation or other available options (chemical). ***Protection of post-harvest***: The main causes of loss are associated with mechanical damage, physiological condition (maturity, respiration, water loss, sprouting), diseases and pests. To ensure effective storage of root and tuber crops, these major causative factors need to be properly understood. ***Protecting Mechanical Damage:*** Root and tuber crops need to be handled gently to minimize bruising and breaking of the skin because of its relatively soft texture compared to cereal grains. Therefore, the following methods have to be considered to avoid mechanical damage: Properly ***handle at harvest and during transport to and within a store*** Proper packaging and handling is help to protect the damage during handling, transport, storage and to provide containers of uniform size that are conveniently stacked and handled, easily accounted for in quantity and, where appropriate, in weight. ***Temperature:*** is the single most important factor affecting the rate of respiration; it also influences the rate of sprout growth, the development of rotting micro-organisms and insect infestation. ***Preventing pests***: critically observe the occurrence of insect pest and diseases on the planted crops throughout the growing season. - Choose the appropriate pest management options and implement it properly ƒ Use the Integrated pest management methods Cultural control methods (such as crop rotation; weed control and sanitation; - Use of resistant or tolerant varieties; host eradication; mulching; etc. Mechanical & physical control methods (use of trap; handpicking; tillage and mulching; seed and or seedling treatment Biological control This involves the use of living organisms to control pests such as insects, mites, weeds and plant diseases using other organisms that affect roots and tuber crops. 7. **Harvesting and post-harvest handling of root and tuber crops** Since harvested root and tuber crops are living organisms, some physical, chemical and physiological processes are continuing in the storage unless they are properly handled. Such processes lead to postharvest losses. To reduce these losses, the causative factors need to be properly understood and managed taking into account the socio-economic factors that prevail in the areas of production and marketing. Because of their higher moisture content, greater susceptibility to physical damages and higher metabolic activities, harvested roots and tubers are more perishable than grain crops. While losses of grains are primarily due to external factors such as insects, rodents and molds, the losses of roots and tubers are caused primarily by physiological disorders including loss of moisture and microbial spoilages. **Unit 4** **Coffee, Tea and Spices Production and Management** 1. **History and Origin of Coffee, Tea and Spices** The name coffee is derived from Kaffa. The story goes that Kaldi discovered coffee after he noticed that his goats became so energetic that they did not want to sleep at night after eating the berries from a certain tree. Kaldi reported his findings to the abbot of the local monastery. Of more than 100 species in the genus Coffea, the three species used in the production of the beverage coffee are Arabica coffee, Robusta coffee and Liberian or Liberica coffee. All commercial coffee species originate from Africa and belong to the genus Coffea. The high quality Coffea Arabica species originates from the rainforests in the southwestern highlands of Ethiopia. **TEA** Tea was originated in southwest China as a medicinal drink most likely in the Yunnan region during the Shang dynasty. Tea first came to be known to western civilization and was introduced to Ethiopia and started operation at small scale in the early 1920s during the time of Empress Zewditu. Camellia Sinensis is a species of evergreen shrubs or small trees in the flowering plant family and its leaves and leaf buds are used to produce tea. **SPICES** Spices are the aromatic parts of tropical plants traditionally used to flavor food. A spice is a seed, fruit, root, bark, or other plant substance primarily used for flavoring or coloring food. Spices are originated in Egypt and there use moves from Egypt to the Middle East, Mediterranean and Europe. The spice trade was controlled by Arab middlemen for a long period and later spread to India, China, Indonesia and America **Production status and economic importance of coffee** Coffee is among the most important agricultural commodities on the world market. Coffee: - cultivated on approximately 10.3 million hectares - It is a sole economic income for more than 25 million families - Exported by more than 60 nations. - one of the top cash crops in developing countries - the second most valuable commodity next to fuel - accounts for 25 - 30% of Ethiopia's total export - It is produced in 80 tropical countries, with an estimated 125 million people depending on it for their livelihoods in Latin America, Africa, and Asia. 2. **Propagation of coffee** Coffee propagated through seed sexual propagation and stem cuttings or grafting called vegetative or asexual propagation. **Steps in Propagation of coffee by seed** a. **Seed tree selection** b. **Harvesting and processing** **Vegetative (Asexual) propagation of Coffee** **Coffee propagation via stem cuttings is often preferred due to its simplicity and effectiveness. This process allows for the creation of new plants that are genetically identical to the parent plant.** **Cutting** **Since obtaining a coffee bean crop from a plant grown by seed may take four or five years, propagation of a coffee by cutting is more efficient means of propagation.** **Steps to Propagating Coffee from Cuttings** - Preparation of Tools and Materials (ensure that the cutting tools are sanitized to prevent the transfer of bacteria or fungi). - Selecting the Cutting (Choose a healthy stem from a mature coffee plant) - Preparing the Cutting - Planting the Cutting - Creating Humidity (Cover the cutting with a clear plastic bag to maintain humidity levels, which are crucial for root development) - Monitoring Growth **Grafting** It is an art of connecting two pieces of living plant tissue together. **Micro-Propagation (Biotechnology)** Another possible way of propagating coffee is through Micro propagation. This technique is the application of tissue culture techniques. **Production status and economic importance of Tea** Tea is one of the most important non-alcoholic beverage drinks worldwide. The top five spices producer countries in the world are India, China, Turkey, Bangladesh and Indonesia. Ethiopia is one of the East African countries that produce and export various spices. **Propagation, nursery establishment and management of Tea** Tea plants can be raised from seed, cuttings and tissue culture (micro propagation). Tea can be propagated sexually (by seed) or asexually (by vegetative means). **Propagation of Tea by seed** Seed propagation can be performed by sowing the seeds directly in the plantation or by first growing them in seed bags in a nursery. Seed bags in a nursery will be transplanted to the plantation at a later stage. **Vegetative (asexual) propagation** Vegetative propagation consists of taking a cutting (i.e. a stem or leaf) from a "mother bush" and growing a tea bush. **Propagation of Tea by stem cutting** This involves single node cuttings with one leaf and well-developed auxiliary bud. Propagating tea by stem cutting involves cutting from young shoots and putting the root in plastic bags, under well-shaded nursery at a height of 2m. **Field establishment and management practices for Coffee** The area to be planted with coffee must be prepared at least one year before the small coffee trees are planted. The five procedures to be followed are: land preparation, planting windbreaks, mark out the rows, establish shade trees and prepare for irrigation. **Planting procedure** Prepare the holes one month before planting. Mark the planting holes, dig holes of 600 x 600 x 600 mm, Pile topsoil to one side of the whole, subsoil to other side of hole, Mix in 2 kg of dry farmyard manure (FYM) + 3 heaped soupspoons (about 85 g) Triple Superphosphate (TSP). Feel the hole with topsoil; use both the subsoil and topsoil to complete filling the hole. Re-mark the center of the hole with a stick. **Field management of young coffee trees** To achieve high yields of quality coffee, good field management practices are essential. Poorly managed coffee will take longer to produce a good crop and will suffer from dieback. Keep the ground free of weeds and cut short ground covers in the frosty period. This will protect the plant **Control weeds and mulch plants from frost** Weeds compete for both nutrients and water. It is thus essential to keep the area under the canopy of trees. Make the area also weed-free. Mulching will reduce the amount of weeding required. Dead or dry weeds can be used as mulch. Fresh weeds may re-grow, especially in wet weather if they are not dried properly before being added as mulch. **Watering plants** Do not allow the plant root ball to dry out after planting. Irrigate (or hand water where irrigation is not installed), two to three times per week for the first few weeks. If planted at the recommended time (June to August), there is a good chance of rain. This keeps the soil moisture maintained.