Age Of Revolutions Study Guide PDF

**The Scientific Revolution** **Overview of the Scientific Revolution** - The Scientific Revolution marked a significant shift from the Geocentric Theory, which stated that the Earth was the center of the universe, to a new understanding of the cosmos, primarily through the **HELIOCE...

**The Scientific Revolution** **Overview of the Scientific Revolution** - The Scientific Revolution marked a significant shift from the Geocentric Theory, which stated that the Earth was the center of the universe, to a new understanding of the cosmos, primarily through the **HELIOCENTRIC THEORY** proposed by Nicolaus Copernicus in 1543 which argued **THE SUN IS THE CENTER OF THE UNIVERSE**. - This period, beginning in the 1500s, emphasized the use of **SCIENCE, LOGIC, REASON** over religious explanations for natural phenomena, leading to groundbreaking discoveries and methodologies. - The revolution was characterized by both advancements in scientific thought and severe repercussions for those who challenged traditional beliefs, including torture and execution of dissenting scientists. - Isaac Newton\'s contributions, **DISCOVERY OF GRAVITY, AND LAWS OF MOTION**, laid the groundwork for classical mechanics and mathematics, including calculus, while maintaining a belief in divine creation to avoid persecution. - The revolution fundamentally established a framework for **MODERN SCIENCE**. **Key Figures and Their Contributions** - **NICOLAUS COPERNICUS**: Proposed the Heliocentric model, challenging the long-held Geocentric view, which laid the foundation for modern astronomy. - **GALILEO GALILI:** Supported Copernicus\'s model through telescopic observations, leading to conflict with the Catholic Church. - **FRANCES BACON**: Advocated for the scientific method, emphasizing experimentation and observation as the basis for knowledge. - **ISSAC NEWTON**: Formulated the laws of motion and universal gravitation, explaining planetary motion and laying the groundwork for calculus. - William Harvey: correctly dictated blood circulation throughout the body and established the heart pumps the blood **Impact of the Scientific Revolution** - The Scientific Revolution led to the development of the Scientific Method and influenced many fields. - It fostered a spirit of inquiry and skepticism that encouraged questioning of **RELIGION AND THE CATHOLIC CHURCH**. - The revolution contributed to the Enlightenment, a movement that emphasized reason, individualism, and skepticism of authority, shaping modern political and philosophical thought. - The advancements in understanding human anatomy, such as the discovery of blood circulation, revolutionized medicine and biology. - The conflict between science and religion during this period set the stage for ongoing debates about faith and reason. **The Glorious Revolution** **Background and Causes** - The Glorious Revolution (1688) was a pivotal event in English history, characterized by the overthrow of **KING JAMES II**, a Catholic monarch, by Protestant forces. - The English Civil War (1642-1649) set the stage for this revolution, with the conflict between Royalists (Cavaliers) and Parliamentarians (Roundheads) leading to the execution of **KING CHARLES I** and the establishment of a Commonwealth under **OLIVER CROMWELL**. - The fear of a Catholic dynasty prompted Parliament to invite James\'s Protestant daughter Mary and her husband William to take the throne, leading to a bloodless coup. **Key Events of the Glorious Revolution** - In 1688, William of Orange landed in England with an army, prompting **KING JAMES II** to flee to France. - The revolution resulted in the establishment of a **CONSTITUTIONAL MONARCHY**, limiting the powers of the monarch and ensuring parliamentary sovereignty. - **THE BILL OF RIGHTS** (1689) was enacted, outlining the rights of Parliament and the limitations on the monarch, including the prohibition of cruel and unusual punishment and the right to bear arms. **The Industrial Revolution** **Overview of the Industrial Revolution** - The Industrial Revolution, beginning in the **MID-1700S** in **ENGLAND**, marked a transition from agricultural economies to industrialized and urbanized societies. - Key factors for this transformation included access to **NATURAL RESOURCES**, capital for investment, and advancements in technology and transportation. - The revolution led to significant changes in production methods, moving from **HAND TOOLS** to **MACHINE** manufacturing, which increased output and efficiency. - Innovations such as the **STEAM ENGINE** revolutionized transportation and communication, facilitating trade and the movement of goods. **Agricultural Innovations and Their Impact** - New agricultural techniques, such as crop rotation and selective breeding, improved food production and reduced the risk of **FAMINE**. - Jethro Tull\'s invention of the seed drill allowed for more efficient planting, leading to **HIGHER CROP PRODUCTION** and **HEALTHIER POPULATIONS.** - The agricultural surplus contributed to population growth, which in turn increased demand for goods and provided a labor force for factories. - The shift from rural to urban living resulted in **RAPID URBANIZATION**, as people moved to cities in search of work. **Technological Advancements** - The **STEAM ENGINE**, improved by James Watt in 1764, became a driving force behind industrial machinery, locomotives, and steamships, transforming transportation and industry. - Eli Whitney\'s invention of the cotton gin revolutionized the cotton industry by streamlining the process of separating seeds from cotton, increasing production efficiency. - The introduction of machines like the spinning jenny and the water frame significantly boosted textile production, leading to the establishment of factories. - The rise of factories centralized production, leading to new **LABOR** dynamics and the decline of traditional **PUTTING-OUT SYSTEM**. **Social Changes and Labor Conditions** - The Industrial Revolution led to the emergence of **THE NEW MIDDLE CLASS**, composed of industrialists, investors, and skilled workers, who enjoyed improved living standards. - In contrast, the working class faced harsh conditions in factories, including **LONG HOURS, DANGEROUS WORK CONDITIONS, AND LOW WAGES**, often living in overcrowded tenements. - **CHILD LABOR** became prevalent, with children working in factories from a young age, leading to social reform movements advocating for labor rights. - **LABOR UNIONS** began to form, despite being illegal, as workers organized strikes to demand better wages and working conditions. **American Revolution** **Key Events Leading to Tension** - **FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR** (1754-1763) heightened tensions between Britain and its colonies, as Britain sought to recoup war debts through taxation. - **THE SEVEN YEARS WAR** (1756-1763) expanded British territorial claims but also increased colonial dissatisfaction due to new taxes imposed to pay for the war. - The Proclamation of 1763 restricted colonial expansion **WESTWARD**, leading to resentment among colonists eager for land. - The series of taxes, including the **SUGAR** Act (1764) and **STAMP** Act (1765), were seen as violations of colonial rights, sparking protests. - The Tea Act (1773) led to the **BOSTON TEA PARTY**, a significant act of defiance against British taxation. - The **COERCIVE** Acts (1774) were punitive measures that further united the colonies against British rule. **Enlightenment Influence** - The Founding Fathers were influenced by Enlightenment ideas, advocating for **BASIC RIGHTS AND A REPUBLIC**. - The belief in natural rights led to the assertion that British Parliament was illegitimate in imposing taxes without **REPRESENTATION**. - Key figures like Thomas Jefferson and Benjamin Franklin were instrumental in articulating these ideas. - The concept of \'**NO TAXATION WITHOUT REPRESENTATION**' became a rallying cry for the colonists. **The Road to Revolution** - The **COERCIVE ACTS** of 1774, known as the Intolerable Acts, were a direct response to the Boston Tea Party, punishing Massachusetts. - The **BOSTON PORT** Act closed the harbor until damages were paid, crippling the local economy. - The **MASSACHUSETTS GOVERNMENT** Act reduced self-governance in the colony and installed direct British rule. - The **QUARTERING** Act required colonists to house British troops, further inflaming tensions. **Aftermath and New Governance** - The **ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION** (1777) established a weak central government, highlighting the need for reform. - The **UNITED STATES CONSTITUTION** (1787-1788) introduced federalism, popular sovereignty, and a system of checks and balances. - The **BILL OF RIGHTS**, comprising the first ten amendments, guaranteed essential freedoms such as speech and religion. - The new government structure aimed to prevent the concentration of power seen under British rule. - The revolutionary ideals inspired movements for democracy and rights in other nations, notably leading to the French Revolution. **The French Revolution** **Social Structure and Causes** - French society was divided into three estates: the First Estate (**CHURCH AND CLERGY**), Second Estate (**NOBILITY AND ARISTOCRACY**), and Third Estate (**PEASANTS/FARMERS AND BUSINESSMEN/ARTISANS**). - The **FIRST** Estate comprised only 1% of the population but owned 10% of the land and paid no taxes, creating resentment among the Third Estate. - The **SECOND** Estate, making up 3% of the population, also paid no taxes and controlled government resources, further exacerbating class tensions. - The **THIRD** Estate, representing 95% of the population, bore the tax burden and had little political power, leading to calls for reform. - King Louis XVI\'s financial mismanagement and attempts at reform failed due to resistance from the nobility, deepening the crisis. - The Estates General\'s structure, with **ONE** vote per estate, consistently marginalized the Third Estate, prompting their demand for change. **Key Events of the Revolution** - The **TENNIS COURT OATH** marked the Third Estate\'s commitment to creating a new constitution after being locked out of the Estates General. - The **DECLARATION OF THE RIGHTS OF MAN AND THE CITIZEN** established fundamental rights and principles of liberty and equality. - The Storming of the Bastille on July 14, 1789, symbolized the uprising against royal authority and marked the revolution\'s beginning. - The Great Fear saw widespread panic and riots among peasants, leading to attacks on noble estates. - Robespierre\'s **REIGN OF TERROR** resulted in mass executions of perceived enemies of the revolution, highlighting the revolution\'s radical turn. - The establishment of the French Republic abolished the monarchy and sought to replace Catholicism with the Cult of Reason.