AFST 302 Anti-Black Racism in North America PDF

AFST 302 Anti-Black Racism in North America Dr. Motilola Akinfemisoye-Adejare Department of Anthropology and Archaeology Faculty of Arts Review of previous class Last week, We discussed the role of apologies in redressing historical wrongs We also attempted to define ethnicity, race and...

AFST 302 Anti-Black Racism in North America Dr. Motilola Akinfemisoye-Adejare Department of Anthropology and Archaeology Faculty of Arts Review of previous class Last week, We discussed the role of apologies in redressing historical wrongs We also attempted to define ethnicity, race and racism Some of you provided very insightful examples from experience of the dimensions of racism in Canada We also spoke about microaggressions as ‘mosquito bites’ 2 Lesson Focus This week, we will turn our gaze to theoretical perspectives on race and ethnicity We would discuss the following ‘Race’ Theories Primordialism Culture, Assimilation and Socioeconomic success Conflict & Political Economy Intersectional Analyses Critical Race Theory Postcolonialism Whiteness  Is race biological or a social reality or both? “Race is a political and social category, not a biological one” (Ray, 2022:3) 4 What are theories? Theories are based upon hypotheses and empirical evidence in order to define and understand social reality Theories search for the multiple causes of social relations, and help us analyze, explain and predict social phenomena E.g., They help us to understand incidents such as Rodney King’s and George Floyd’s killing by police officers in the US and the subsequent responses There are several different theoretical perspectives to understanding “race” and ethnic relations Primordialism and Socio-biology Primordial approaches (e.g., sociobiology) conceptualize ethnicity and “race” as being discrete, ascriptive characteristics that are given at birth and that derive from objective biological or blood ties Pierre van de Berghe (1981) argued that ethnic groups tend to band together in order to ensure the long-term survival and propagation of their group He argued that in order to maximize their chances of survival, individuals resort to inclusive fitness (intermarry to pass on genes) Primordialism and Socio-biology, cont’d Basic mechanism of ethnic solidarity is nepotism (favouring relatives because one has power to get them into certain positions) Some understand modern-day conflicts through primordial perspectives e.g. the 1994 Rwandan genocide Some critics, however, suggest that a primordial perspective may be insufficient because: It doesn’t explain how ethnic groups coexist in peace Conflict may not be borne simply from physical differences (conflicting groups are often physically Culture and Assimilation The Chicago School played an important role in understanding how groups interacted and experienced immigration in the United States Sociologists at the University of Chicago, writing in the early 20th century studied the processes by which different ethnic groups came in contact with each other, the forms their contacts assumed, the nature of their competition and the processes by which groups maintained or lost their ethnic characteristics Culture and Assimilation, cont’d W. I. Thomas study of Polish immigrants to Chicago found that internal and external competition often led to community disorganization, despair, and disarray and changed family structures Thomas argued against the forced abandonment of ethnic cultures, languages, religions, or other bases of ethnic identity He called for pluralism, the tolerance of ethnic differences and for reconciliation 11 Culture and Assimilation, cont’d Robert Park studied the processes through which “racial” groups come into contact and interact He proposed a “race relations cycle,” which also applied to ethnic relations The elements of the cycle are: contact, competition, accommodation and fusion/assimilation or conflict The cycle led to one outcome: assimilation, in which the subordinate minority groups are assimilated into the dominant majority group This form of fusion, according to Park, allowed for social harmony and equality Culture and Assimilation, cont’d Milton Gordon, another Chicago School sociologist, expanded on Robert Park’s analysis by suggesting that assimilation is a seven-stage process: Cultural/behavioral (acculturation into the cultural patterns of the host society); Structural assimilation; Marital assimilation; Identificational assimilation; Attitude receptional assimilation (no prejudice from host society) ;Behavioral receptional assimilation (no discrimination from host society); and Civic assimilation(no conflicts over values and power)  Gordon argued that progression through these stages was not inevitable or linear and that some groups can get “stuck” at a stage of assimilation 14 Culture and Assimilation, cont’d Gordon Allport introduced the “contact hypothesis,” in which he argued that prejudice between groups can be reduced when certain conditions are met Critics, however, have pointed out that the hypothesis does not really specify how and why contact under these conditions reduces prejudice or if the effects of contact can be generalized to other situations (Pettigrew, 1998) Both Parks and Allport’s approaches have been criticized for not being applicable to minority experiences Racism and discrimination place limits on whether certain groups are allowed to assimilate. Culture and Assimilation, cont’d Alejandro Portes used the concept of segmented assimilation to reflect that the society immigrants and their children assimilate into is not itself homogeneous He argued that three outcomes are possible for immigrant children: 1. They become assimilated to the dominant culture (become economically successful) 2. They are integrated into ethnic enclaves (measured by their retention of ethnic identity) 3. Lower-social class immigrant children may develop marginalized identities and positions in the labour market Culture and Assimilation, cont’d Boyd (2002) found “visible minority” youth from low-resource homes, especially lone-parent families tend to be disadvantaged and display potential of segmented assimilation. Mary Waters (2000) found that Caribbean immigrants who resist “Americanization” are the most likely to succeed in the US By preserving their own cultural identity and by resisting the African-American label, they have done well in education and earnings Louie (2004) suggests that “becoming American” might be associated with less economic success Kalbach and Kalbach (2000) found that in Canada, ethnic Culture and Socio-economic Success Some argue that cultural values and biological characteristics affect the psychological composition of group members and produce “differences in cognitive perception, mental aptitude, and logical reasoning” (Li, 1999, p. 10) These differences, in turn, affect educational and economic achievements Other important cultural arguments include: Oscar Lewis’ Culture of Poverty Thesis Wagley and Harris’ theory of Adaptive Capacity Culture and Socio-economic Success, cont’d John Porter in his book The Vertical Mosaic(1965) distinguished between behavioral assimilation (acquiring dominant group cultural values) and structural assimilation (integration of minorities into the economic, social, and political life of the country) Porter also advanced the Blocked Mobility Thesis: Ethnic affiliation was a determinant of social class membership and prevented the upward mobility of certain groups, partly because they had not assimilated culturally in Canada This approach is popular in explaining the relationship between ethnicity, “race and social inequality Culture and Socio-economic Success, cont’d Amy Chua and Jed Rubenfeld (2014) published The Triple Package: How Three Unlikely Traits Explain the Rise and Fall of Cultural Groups in America. The book emphasized “culture” as the driver of economic success for ethnic groups. They studied 8 economically successful groups in the US: Cubans, East Asians, Indians, Jewish people, Lebanese, Mormons, Nigerians and Persians Three cultural traits explain success for minority groups in America: Superiority Complex Personal Insecurity Impulse Control Culture and Socio-economic Success, cont’d There are limitations of the cultural approach to understanding racial and ethnic differences: Peter Li (1988) argues there is no simple correspondence between people, culture, and “nation” Differences within groups: People who claim common origins do not necessarily share the same experiences or culture (Louie, 2004). Cultural differences also might vary by gender, class, age, region, education, etc. Culture is not static, uniform, or homogeneous  Chua and Rubenfield (2014) argued that each of these groups have a deeply held sense of their own superiority but at the same time individual members also have insecurities about not doing well in economic or educational endeavours. Combined, these two traits produce an “ I’ll show them” attitude. Coupled with the impulse control--- which is the ability to defer immediate gratification and resist temptation. 22 Conflict Theory and Political Economy Some characteristics of the political economy perspective: It tends to be rooted in the conflict theories of Marx and Weber It focuses on the study of differential allocation of economic, political, and ideological power among individuals and groups in society It examines social relations based on the ownership and control of private property People engage in meaningful social action and practices in their daily lives Conflict Theory and Political Economy, cont’d In general, the political economy approach perceives “race” and ethnicity as relational concepts Individuals belong to inherited social structures that enable but also constrain their social actions E.g., class, gender, “race”/ethnicity, age, sexual preference, physical ability, and mental health/illness “Race” and ethnicity have historically been defined as and often overlapped with class Class is both a fundamental economic relationship between groups and a structural condition within which these relations take place Racism, Capitalism, and Class Relations Many political economists argue that “race problems begin as labour problems” (Bolaria and Li, 1988, p. 7) Some versions of political economy focus on the specific issue of the relationship between racism and slavery Racial ideologies served as justification for the allocation of one group of people—Africans—to positions of unfree labour in the capitalist system (Du Bois, 1935) Some political economists argue that slavery emerged not because of the belief a superior white “race” and inferior black but rather Racism, Capitalism, and Class Relations, cont’d Montagu (1964) argue that racism emerged just as calls for the abolition of slavery were being made Others argue that racism was employed as a weapon in the super-exploitation of the working class through divide and conquer tactics According to split labour theory, ethnic and racial conflicts are rooted in differences in the price of labour (Bonacich, 1979, p. 19) Racial hostility and exclusionary movements serve to limit job opportunities for cheaper, usually “non-white,” labour  Racism, Capitalism, and Class Relations, cont’d Apartheid in South Africa is an extreme example In Canada, the split labour market was reflected in the construction of the Canadian Railway(Agnes Calliste found that Black men were in the early and mid-20th Century confined to lower-paying jobs while better- paying jobs were reserved for White men) Split labour market theory is criticized for being limited in its historical scope. While it is useful for understanding and analyzing forms of racism in the past, racial forms of discriminations are difficult to create and enforce in countries like Canada Political Economy Lite Softer versions of political economy today focus on the broad links between expressions of racism and wider materially based class relations and social conflicts Economically driven contacts between different groups and struggles over markets, jobs, housing and other resources often produce tension and hostility Controversies around “ethnic malls” and house prices reflect underlying class dynamics and resentments Far right political parties, ideologies, and policies such as anti-immigration movements draw on exclusionary discourse Political Economy Lite (Cont’d) According to Peter Li (1998), the hostility toward Chinese businesses in Markham Ontario had little to do with the supposed “natural” hostilities between white and Chinese residents. Rather, it had to do with the success that Chinese business owners were experiencing in suburban shopping areas where other small businesses were unable to survive. The debate in Vancouver in the early 2000s about rising housing costs also provides an example of how economic conditions and competition over scarce resources can contribute to racialized tensions. 29 Political Economy Lite (cont’d) There were arguments that the dramatic increase in housing costs in the city was largely due to wealthy immigrants from China and Hong Kong who were buying properties at inflated prices and driving up the costs for all types of accommodation in the city. Some argued that blaming Chinese immigrants for rising property prices is racist while others argue that they were being silenced by political correctness and are unable to express their concerns about the impact of foreign capital in the real estate market without being labelled as “racist” 30 Political Economy Lite (cont’d) In recent times, there have been some right-wing politicians like Donald Trump in the United States and Nigel Farage in the United Kingdom who have tapped into the insecurities of the working-class voters and the hidden insecurities of the middle- class voters by blaming a combination of immigrants, political elites, multicultural policies, universities for their problems. They foment division along the lines of “race” ethnicity and immigration status to get elected 31 Intersectional Analysis This perspective recognizes the multifaceted nature of social inequality and seeks to understand and explain the dynamic interactions of class, gender, and ethnic/“racial” and other forms of domination and subordination, as well as the different ways in which each dimension is experienced by people Researchers advocate for the need to consider all three dimensions when examining social inequality There is a lack of consensus on which of these bases of social inequality has the greatest impact on individual or group identity, life experiences, or social position Intersectional Analysis, cont’d New intersectional theorizing focus on the simultaneity of racism, sexism and class exploitation and the fact that they are interrelated systems of privilege and oppression. This is a shift from additive models which use binary characteristics like black/white. Scholars such as Kimberlé Crenshaw conceptualize intersectionality as a web Crenshaw (1989, p.149) explains that “Black women can experience discrimination in ways that are both similar to and different from those experiences by white women and Black men…often they experience double discrimination –the combined effects of practices” The matrix of domination builds on Crenshaw’s approach Intersectional Analysis, cont’d Hill Collins (2000) argues that the matrix of domination means that at the individual, collective and cultural levels of a society, systems of oppression are interlocking such that patterns of privilege and disadvantage can operate in complex ways According to standpoint theorists, a person’s position in the structure of domination produces different kinds of experiences, which in turn provide the bases for different ways of knowing about the world Critical Race Theory (CRT) CRT focuses on “racial” inequalities in the distribution of social goods such as work, education and training, housing, health, daycare and other social services, the legal system, and policing CRT criticizes liberal notions of objectivity, meritocracy, neutrality, and colour-blindness as questionable constructs, which, although they permeate government rhetoric, in practice tend to favour whites Canadian system is based on the “color-blindness” of the law principle In Canada, generally, lawyers do not invoke the “race card”  The death of Colton Boushie and the Gerald Stanley trial reflect this principle The issue of ”race” and jury came to its head in the 2018 trial of Gerald Stanley in Saskatchewan. A white farmer who was charged with the second- degree murder of Colton Boushie , a young First Nations man in 2016. 36 Post-colonialism In the middle of the 20th century, various regions of the colonized world gained national independence from imperialist European countries (e.g., Algeria, Angola) However, colonization is ongoing: Indigenous people in Canada are an “internal colony” Neocolonialism: the use of economic, political, cultural, or other pressures to control or influence other countries Post-colonial theory focuses on issues surrounding the historical legacy of racism, the reasons for the persistence of racism, and how and why new forms of racism arise in the relatively young independent states Post-colonialism, cont’d Post-colonialism is a continuous process of resistance to European hegemonic cultural ideas and practices while at the same time reconstructing local and more authentic identities of the colonized Two important scholars of post-colonial studies are: 1. Frantz Fanon who argued that colonization itself was a violent process with very traumatic effects on the colonized 2. Edward Said: Orientalism was a discourse and a powerful political tool in the hands of the West used to misrepresent Arab cultures 3. Denigration of cultures; use of lingua franca “Whiteness” Increased attention has been paid to “whiteness” as both a socially constructed identity, a structure of domination and as a condition that shapes the ways that urban environments are built and social relations are understood “White gaze” refers to a “white” way of looking at the world and often is the refusal to recognize the reality of racism and privilege Peggy McIntosh refers to this as “white privilege” “Whiteness” scholarship is often controversial Summary The use of theoretical perspectives to understand “race” and ethnic relations is strongly influenced by the values and assumptions held by the researchers. Some of the main theories include: Political economy is most closely derived from conflict theory Approaches that focus on assimilation are influenced by theoretical traditions of symbolic interactionism and structural functionalism Intersectional theory, critical race theory, and post- colonialism are influenced by post-modernism Studies of “whiteness” are influenced by conflict theory and symbolic interactionism