Bio 108 Exam 2 PDF

Bio 108 Exam 2 Study online at https://quizlet.com/_cr8xb5 1. What are cortical neurons?: neurons in the cerebral cortex 2. what kind of neurons are in the cerebral cortex?: interneurons 3. where are interneurons in the cerebral cortex located?: outer grey matter 4. what is contralateral orga...

Bio 108 Exam 2 Study online at https://quizlet.com/_cr8xb5 1. What are cortical neurons?: neurons in the cerebral cortex 2. what kind of neurons are in the cerebral cortex?: interneurons 3. where are interneurons in the cerebral cortex located?: outer grey matter 4. what is contralateral organization? example?: each hemisphere of the cere- bral cortex receives sensory input and gives motor commands to the opposite side in the body ex: cortical neurons in the left hemisphere deal with sensory/ motor neurons on the right side of your body (vise vera) 5. what is decussation?: crossing of axons from one side to the other 6. what is laterization of the brain?: cortical neurons in the left cerebral cortex have different specialized functions from the cortical neurons in the right cerebral cortex 7. where does the left cerebral cortex receive sensory stimulus/ have motor control over?: right side of the body (vise versa) 8. What is the left hemisphere responsible for?: -more logic/ language/ math -speech/ language -comprehension/ analysis -calculations (math) -telling time -recognizing words, letters, and numbers 9. what is the right brain more responsible for?: -more creativity -special awareness -recognizing names, places, and objects 10. cortical neurons have specialized functions based on their ______ in the cerebral cortex: position 11. spiralized functions are _____ in the brain: localized ex: seeing happens in the posterior portion of the brain 12. what are the 3 jobs of cortical neurons?: 1) initiate motor movements 2) awareness of sensations 3) make associations/ make correct responses 13. 4 places cortical neurons that control motor functions are found: 1) primary motor cortex 2) premotor cortex 3) Broca's area 4) frontal eye field 14. cortical neurons in the primary motor cortex control motor neurons in our _______ nervous system: somatic 15. what is the primary motor cortex anterior to?: central sulcus 16. What is the precentral gyrus?: raised primary motor cortex area 1 / 28  Bio 108 Exam 2 Study online at https://quizlet.com/_cr8xb5 17. what do pyramidal cells control/ where are they?: control activity and have large axons that go from the cerebral cortex to the spinal cord 18. Where does decussation occur?: medulla oblongata/ spinal cord 19. what 2 neurons control the ability to write?: 1) upper motor neuron: cortical neuron 2) lower motor neuron: motor neuron 20. what is a desending tract?: information flowing from the cerebral cortex down to a motor neuron 21. What is the corticospinal tract?: motor movement from neck down into the spinal cord -2 neurons -lower neuron is a spinal nerve -descending tract 22. What is the corticobulbar tract?: motor movement from a cranial nerve -2 neurons -lower neuron is a cranial nerve -descending tract 23. what is somatotopy?: idea that the position of cortical neurons on the weird map thing correspond with the areas on the body that they control 24. What is the motor homunculus? why are some body parts bigger?: -map of where body parts are controlled on the primary motor cortex -larger the body part is the more cortical neurons are involved in moving those areas of the body 25. What did Wilder Penfield find?: that different areas of the primary motor cortex move different parts of the body 26. what is an indirect descending pathway?: when a 3rd interneuron is used to relay info the cortical neuron to the lower motor neuron -has its soma in the midbrain/ brainstem 27. what do relay neurons control?: -muscle tone -balance -flexion 28. somatic motor commands are indicated from _______ neurons in the cortex: pyramidal 29. how is info shared to skeletal muscle?: descending tracts with 2-3 neurons 30. What is the rubrospinal tract?: descending tract with 3 neurons 31. what does the 3rd neuron in a rubrospinal tract do? where is its soma?: - -relays info from upper neuron to lower neuron -soma in midbrain or brainstem 2 / 28  Bio 108 Exam 2 Study online at https://quizlet.com/_cr8xb5 32. what is synaptic potentiation?: strengthening of synapses that are used fre- quently 33. explain how synaptic potentiation occurs when you practice playing the guitar: upper motor neurons and lower motor neurons communicate faster and better and synapses strengthen the more you repeat one movement/ practice the guitar 34. 2 ways synaptic potentiation can occur: 1. increase of Ca2+ in synapse 2. increase of receptors on the post-synaptic membrane 35. how does an increase of Ca2+ strengthen synapses?: -more neurotransmit- ters get released -neurotransmitters get released faster making passage of info faster/ stronger and making action potentials fire faster/more efficiently 36. how does increase of receptors on the post-synaptic membrane strength- en synapses?: -more receptors can engage with more neurotransmitters -more membrane permeability making action potentials fire faster and more efficiently 37. What is the premotor cortex responsible for?: planning and coordinating highly complex movements 38. where is the premotor cortex located?: anterior to the primary motor cortex 39. when are 3 times premotor neurons active?: 1. movement is being planned 2. as movement is being initiated 3. as movement is being learned (see it/ hear it) 40. what part of the brain is carries out the movements that are planed in the premotor cortex?: primary motor cortex 41. What is Broca's area responsible for?: speech production/ motor function 42. Where is Broca's area located?: left frontal lobe 43. if you had a lesion to Broca's area, what would be the deficit?: not being able to express language verbally 44. What is Wernicke's area responsible for?: language comprehension 3 / 28  Bio 108 Exam 2 Study online at https://quizlet.com/_cr8xb5 45. Where is Wernicke's area located?: posterior region of left temporal lobe 46. if you had a lesion in Wernicke's area, what would be the deficit?: you could speak but you would have trouble comprehending constructing language 47. what is the frontal eye field responsible for?: planning/ coordinating/ execut- ing eye movements 48. where is the frontal eye field located?: frontal lobe, anterior to the premotor cortex 49. if you have a lesion to your frontal eye field, what would be the deficit?: you would lose control your eye muscles 50. if frontal eye field is damaged in the left hemisphere, where would the eye tend to gaze?: to the left 51. what is the job of cortical neurons?: be aware of sensations + make sense of environmental stimulus 52. where are the 8 places cortical neurons become made aware of sensory stimuli?: 1) primary somatosensory cortex 2) somatosensory association cortex 3) primary visual cortex and visual association area 4) primary auditory cortex and auditory association area 5) vestibular cortex 6) olfactory cortex 7) gustatory cortex 8) visceral sensory cortex 53. what is the primary somatosensory cortex responsible for?: make sense of touch, pain, pressure, and temp 54. what is a proprioceptor? what is its function?: receptor in muscle that makes sense of the level of stretch, contraction, and body position of muscles 55. where is primary somatosensory cortex located?: postcentral gyrus, poste- rior to central sulcus 56. what are 2 things the primary somatosensory cortex has to do for general sensation?: 1) make sense of what your encountering 4 / 28  Bio 108 Exam 2 Study online at https://quizlet.com/_cr8xb5 ex: temp (hot/cold) pressure (soft/pain) 2) make sense of where the sensation is occurring ex: hand/ foot 57. What is a thermoreceptor?: -temperature receptor -tells us if something is cold/hot 58. what is spacial discrimination?: being able to pinpoint different sensations at different points in the body 59. what is the somatosensory homunculus show?: map of where your brain gets stimulated when you feel touch on different parts of the body 60. how does sensory info move from your body's surface to the primary so- matosensory cortex?: ascending tract from either spinal nerves or cranial nerves 61. What is the spinothalamic tract?: spinal nerves associated with carrying pain, temp, and pressure info 62. what is the 1st neuron in an ascending tract? where is it?: -sensory neuron that synapses on an interneuron -cell body in ganglion 63. what is the 2nd neuron in an ascending tract? where is it?: -interneuron -in spinal nerve/ dorsal horn of spine 64. where is the 3rd neuron in an ascending tract located?: extends from thala- mus to primary somatosensory cortex 65. what is the thalamus a gateway too?: cerebral cortex 66. what is the somatosensory association cortex responsible for?: being able to discriminate between different objects by feeling them 67. where is the somatosensory association cortex located?: posterior to the post-central gyrus in the parietal lobe 68. what is the primary visual cortex responsibility?: create associations with what we see ex: facial recognition 69. what is the visual association area located?: -surrounds primary visual cor- tex -occipital lobe 5 / 28  Bio 108 Exam 2 Study online at https://quizlet.com/_cr8xb5 70. how does sight info get to the primary visual cortex?: 1) light enters the cornea and strikes rods and cones in the retina 2) light info gets converted to an electrical impulse 3) neuron starts at retina and moves through the optic nerve though the optic tract 4) info goes to the thalamus than to primary visual cortex 71. what is the primary auditory cortex responsible for?: telling our brain there is sound 72. how does sound info get to the primary auditory cortex?: 1) sound waves come in through the external acoustic meatus 2) displaces bones in the middle ear 3) neurons in cochlea activate action potentials in cranial nerves 4) info goes to brain stem 5) info goes to thalamus 6) info than lands in the primary auditory cortex 73. where is the primary auditory cortex located?: temporal lobe 74. what is the auditory association area responsible for?: perceive what we hear and differentiate sounds ex: scream, cry, thunder 75. what is the auditory association area located?: temporal lobe near the pri- mary auditory cortex 76. what is the vestibular cortex responsible for?: info about body's balance 77. where is the vestibular cortex located?: insula lobe 78. what is the olfactory cortex responsible for?: -smell -info brought by cranial nerve 1 79. Where is the olfactory cortex located?: temporal lobe 6 / 28  Bio 108 Exam 2 Study online at https://quizlet.com/_cr8xb5 80. what is the gustatory cortex responsible for?: -afferent sensory info from our neurons -brought to cerebral cortex by cranial nerves 7, 9, and 10 81. Where is the gustatory cortex located?: insula lobe 82. what is the visceral sensory cortex responsible for?: feeling things related to what is going on with body organs ex: having to pee, hunger, thirst 83. where is the visceral sensory cortex located?: insula lobe 84. what are 6 things the anterior association cortex is responsible for?: 1) working memory 2) decision making 3) planning 4) solving problems 5) judgment 6) personality 85. if you had a lesion in the anterior association cortex, what would a possible deficit be?: acting like a completely different person 86. what are 5 things the posterior association is responsible for?: 1) under- standing written and spoken language 2) spatial awareness 3) recognition of faces and patterns 4) identifying landmarks 5) attention/ focus 7 / 28  Bio 108 Exam 2 Study online at https://quizlet.com/_cr8xb5 87. What does the diencephalon consist of?: thalamus, hypothalamus, epithala- mus 88. what are the 5 main functions of the thalamus?: 1) relay station to cerebral cortex (all sensory info) 2) sorts through/ edits info coming in and and decides what needs to go to the cerebellum 3) gets rid of info with help from basal ganglia that the cerebellum doesn't need so cerebellum can quickly make sense of the info 4) relay for emotional/ visceral info coming in from hypothalamus 5) relay for motor info coming from cerebellum to fine tune and coordinate somatic movements 89. explain what info has to go through to get to the cerebellum when you feel something cold with your foot: 1) sensory neuron 2) ascending tract 3) somatosensory cortex 4) thalamus 5) cerebellum 90. what real life place is the thalamus like?: airport terminal 91. What are the nucleus in brain/ spine?: collection of cell bodies working togeth- er 92. What is the corona radiata?: where the cerebellum fans out 93. where is they hypothalamus located?: below the thalamus 94. what are the 2 boundaries to the hypothalamus?: 1) optic chiasma (visual info coming in) 2) mamillary body (olfactory info coming in) 95. what glad comes off of the hypothalamus?: pituitary gland 96. What is the infindibulum?: stalk like structure that connects the pituitary gland to neurons in the hypothalamus 8 / 28  Bio 108 Exam 2 Study online at https://quizlet.com/_cr8xb5 97. what is the key role of the hypothalamus?: -homeostasis hub -regulate the autonomic nervous system -maintain regular homeostasis in the body 98. what is the epithalamus composed of?: posterior commissure and pineal gland 99. Where is the epithalamus found?: most dorsal aspect of the diencephalon 100. what is the function of the pineal glad?: produce melatonin 101. what is the function of the epithalamus?: work with pineal gland to make you tired 102. what are some example of what the hypothalamus regulates?: -body temp, food intake, water balance, and thirst -hormonal output for anterior pituitary gland 103. what does the hypothalamus act as? what does it produce?: endocrine gland producing posterior pituitary hormones such as ADH and Oxytocin 104. what does the mesencephalon consist of?: midbrain 105. Where is the mesencephalon located?: top of the brain stem 106. axons of ascending tracts carrying sensory info pass through the ________ ________ ______ of the midbrain: dorsal white matter 107. axons of descending tracts carrying motor info pass through the ___________ _________ _______ of the midbrain: ventral white matter 108. what is the corpora quadrigemina?: 4 nucelli 109. Where is the corpora quadrigemina located?: bulged out of the midbrain 110. what are the 2 parts of the corpora quadrigemina?: 1. superior colliculi 2. inferior colliculi 111. what is the superior colliculi's function?: -visual reflex center ex: head moves if you see something coming at you 9 / 28  Bio 108 Exam 2 Study online at https://quizlet.com/_cr8xb5 112. what is the inferior colliculi's function?: -auditory reflex center ex: if you hear a loud sound you turn around 113. axons of descending motor tracts run through the _______ _______ of the midbrain: cerebral peduncles 114. Where are the cerebral peduncles located?: ventral surface of midbrain 115. axons of ascending sensory tracts run though more ______ positions of the midbrain: dorsal 116. what does the red nucleus of the midbrain have?: neurons involved in indirect descending motor tracts involved with muscle tone 117. Where is the red nucleus located?: midbrain 118. what does the cerebral aqueduct connect?: 3rd and 4th ventricles 119. what is the function of substantia nigra?: has brown neurons that release dopamine for body movements 120. what happens as the brown neurons in the substantia nigra degenerate?- : body movements become less coordinated= Parkinson's disease 121. 4 main functions of the midbrain: 1) contains superior and inferior colliculi for visual and auditory reflex centers 2) contains subcortical motor centers (substantia nigra and red nuclei) 3) contains nuclei for cranial nerves III and IV 4) contains projection fibers (ascending and descending) 122. what does the myencephalon consist of?: medulla oblongata 123. where is the myencephalon located?: -bottom of brainstem -inferior to cerebellum 124. what cranial nerves does the medulla oblongata have?: VIII - X and XII 10 / 28  Bio 108 Exam 2 Study online at https://quizlet.com/_cr8xb5 125. what are mesullary neurons?: synapses in the neurons of the medulla oblon- gata 126. what is the medulla oblongata a major cite of?: decussation 127. axons of pyramidal neurons decussate at the _____ _______: medulla oblongata 128. where does decussation occur if not in the medulla oblongata?: spinal cord/ midbrain 129. what are pyramids?: bulges coming out of the medulla oblongata from decus- sation of pyramidal neurons 130. axons of descending motor tracts run through _______ of the medulla oblongata: pyramids 131. axons of ascending sensory tracts run through more _______ positions including the ______ _______ of the medulla oblongata: dorsal/ medial lemnis- cus 132. where is the medial lemniscus in the medulla oblongata?: 133. what ventricle is in the medulla oblongata?: 4th ventricle including choroid plexus 134. what are inferior olivary nucleuses function?: -"bunches of olives" -neurons gathering info about muscle tone, muscle stretch, and positions of muscles 135. where does the inferior olivary nucleuses relay info?: inferior cerebellar peduncle 136. what is the inferior cerebellar peduncles function?: relay sensory details about body position 137. what is the reticular formation involved in?: arousal/ alertness 138. Where is the reticular formation located?: scattered throughout the medulla oblongata 139. : 140. the medulla oblongata and the hypothalamus work together to form an.......: autonomic reflex center 141. what other part of the brain is involved in breathing rate besides the hypothalamus and medulla oblongata?: pons 11 / 28  Bio 108 Exam 2 Study online at https://quizlet.com/_cr8xb5 142. 6 main functions of the medulla oblongata: 1) relays ascending sensory impulses from skin and proprioceptors 2) contains visceral nuclei that control heart rate, breathing rate, vomiting, ect 3) relays sensory info to the cerebellum through inferior olivary nuclei 4) contains nuclei of cranial nerves VII- X and XII 5) contains projection fibers 6) cite of decussation at pyramids 143. where is the limbic association area?: wrapped around the corpus colosse- um 144. what does the limbic association area do?: make emotional behaviors/ responses 145. what is in white matter?: myelinated axons of neurons -coming and leaving cortical neurons 146. what do association fibers connect?: cortical neurons in the same hemi- sphere 147. what do projection fibers connect?: cortical neurons to ascending and de- scending tracts 148. what does the commissural connect?: cortical neurons between left and right hemispheres so the cerebrum can function as a whole 149. what is the internal capsule a cite of?: projection neurons being bundled together at the top of the brainstem 150. what does the corona radiata have?: fibers that radiate fan like along the anterior/ posterior axis of the cerebral cortex 151. where is the basal ganglia located?: deep within the cerebellum 152. 3 structures in the basal ganglia: 1. caudate nucleus 2. putamen 3. globus pallidus 153. function of the basal ganglia: proper initiation and execution of somatic motor movements 154. what does the basal ganglia work with the primary motor cortex, premotor cortex, thalamus, and substantia nigra to do?: 1) promote correct movements 2) inhibit incorrect movements 12 / 28  Bio 108 Exam 2 Study online at https://quizlet.com/_cr8xb5 155. what are the 3 things the metencephalon consists of: 1) pons 2) middle of brainstem 3) adjacent cerebellum 156. Where is the pons located?: -middle part of the brain stem -next to cerebellum 157. in-between the pons and the cerebellum is the ______ ventricle: 4th 158. axons carrying ascending sensory info pass through the ________ ______ _______ of the pons including _____ ______: white matter/ medial lem- niscus 159. axons carrying descending motor info pass through the ____ ______ ______ of the pons: ventral white matter 160. are there synapses at pons for ascending/ descending tracts?: no 161. what cranial nerves come off pons?: V, VI, and VII 162. what ventricle is found in pons?: 4th 163. what does large pontine nuclei in the pons have?: -axons that project next door to cerebellum to control movements -axons that project next door to the medulla oblongata to help control breathing rate and depth 164. what is pons bridged between to coordinate movements?: cerebellum and cerebrum 165. 4 main functions of pons: 1) relay info from the cerebrum to the cerebellum through pontine nuclei 2) cooperate with medullary respitory centers to control breathing rate and depth 3) contain nuclei of cranial nerves V-VII 4) contains projection fibers 166. where is the cerebellum located?: -adjacent to the pons -below the cerebrum 167. function of the cerebellum: coordinate and fine tune movements 168. what part of a dance production would the cerebrum, cerebellum, and skeletal muscles be>: cerebrum- director cerebellum- choreographer skeletal muscle- dancer 13 / 28  Bio 108 Exam 2 Study online at https://quizlet.com/_cr8xb5 169. 4 cerebellar processing steps: 1) cerebellum receives info to move (input) 2) cerebellum receives status of muscle stretch, body position, and balance (input) 3) cerebellum choreographs and calculates body movement 4) cerebellum dispatches the "blue print" for the movement (output) 170. how many cerebellar peduncles are there?: 3 (superior, middle, inferior) 171. what is the function of the cerebellar peduncles?: move info in/out of the cerebellum 172. what is folia?: gyri of the cerebellum 173. what is the function of folia?: -increase surface area -pack neurons to carry out processing 174. What is the arbor vitae?: white matter of the cerebellum "tree of life" 175. what is the function of the arbor vitae?: cite of sharing input and output info 176. what is in the arbor vitae?: axons running from folia back to cerebellar peduncles 177. 3 steps that happen when the cerebellum receives info to move: 1) the primary motor cortex decides the movement for skeletal muscles 2) sends instructions to the pons which relays info between the cerebrum and cerebellum 3) pontine neuron relays info to the cerebellum 178. what does info travel via from the pons to the cerebellum?: middle cerebral peduncle 179. how does the cerebellum revoice info about muscle stretch, body posi- tion, and balance?: proprioceptor neurons 180. what is a muscle spindle?: type of proprioceptor 181. what is the function of a muscle spindle?: give sensory info to the brain about if the muscle is either relaxed/ contracted 182. what cerebral peduncle has a neuron from the muscle spindle ascending to the pons?: middle cerebral peduncle 183. how can you locate the position of muscles in your body?: where sensory input is landing -homunculus 184. where does info about balance come from?: organ in the ear 185. what cranial nerve is balance info relayed?: -CN VIII -vestibulocochlear nerve 186. what cerebral peduncle does balance info go though to get to the cere- bellum?: inferior cerebral peduncle 187. where does processing of a movement occur in the cerebellum?: folia and arbor vitae 14 / 28  Bio 108 Exam 2 Study online at https://quizlet.com/_cr8xb5 188. 3 steps of how the cerebellum send a movement "blueprint" to the cere- brum: 1) cerebellar neurons send info to the thalamus 2) axons in the thalamus send info through the superior cerebellar peduncle 3) info gets out of the thalamus to the cerebrum 4) cerebrum instructs body to carry out movement 189. what does the middle cerebellar peduncle connect?: pons to cerebellum -allow instruction to be given to the cerebellum 190. what does the inferior cerebellar peduncle connect?: medulla oblongata to the cerebellum -relay body position, balance, and muscle tension info cerebellum via ascending tracts 191. what does the superior cerebellar peduncle connect?: output from cerebel- lum to the thalamus which than goes to the cerebrum -instruct final movement 192. 2 main functions of the cerebellum: 1) process info from there cerebral motor cortex (balance and body position) 2) provides "instruction" to the cerebellum to carry out smooth muscle movement 193. how would movements be without the cerebellum?: choppy/ not smooth 194. what are function systems in the brain?: interconnected structures (via neurons) that bring about a particular function 195. what are 2 examples of functional systems?: 1) limbic system 2) reticular formation 196. What is the limbic system responsible for?: emotional brain 197. what is the reticular formation responsible for?: arousal/ alertness 198. what is an example of how you use your limbic system to stay awake?: - blowing cold air when you get tired driving 199. what do reticular activating neurons relay info to? why?: cerebrum via the thalamus so that the cerebrum gets a continuous stream of sensory stimuli to keep you alert 200. what is light?: sensory input that enables us to see things 201. what is vison?: ability to sense light to see objects/faces 202. light is a ____________ wave: electromagnetic 203. what is a electromagnetic wave?: traveling energy wave 204. what is an example of a short wave length?: X-rays (UV rays) 205. can we see short wave lengths?: no 206. what is an example of a medium sized wave length?: light rays 207. can we sense medium sized wave lengths?: yes 208. what is an example of a long wave length?: radio waves 209. can we sense long wave lengths?: no 15 / 28  Bio 108 Exam 2 Study online at https://quizlet.com/_cr8xb5 210. what cortex of the brain can sense that we see things?: primary motor cortex 211. are all light rays the same length?: no they vary based on the color we are seeing 212. objects that are blue reflet _______ light rays: blue (same for red and green) 213. objects that are white reflect _______ the light rays: all 214. objects that are black _____ all types of light rays: absorb 215. what is a photoreceptor?: sensory receptor for light 216. what are the 2 kinds of photoreceptors?: rods and cones 217. where are photopigments?: embedded in the membrane of discs 218. what are photopigments made of?: -protein component -vitamin component 219. what is the function of photopigments?: absorb and perceive light rays 220. what is the function of discs?: -increase surface area for photopigments -increase capacity to detect/ perceive light 221. how many types of rob receptors are there?: 1 222. what many types of cone receptors are there?: 3 223. what are the 3 types of cone receptors?: -blue -red -green 224. how are yellow light rays sensed?: by red and green cones (mesh together) 225. what is the function of cones?: enable us to see life in color 226. what is the function of rods?: -allow us to see black/white scales -photopigments detect presence or absence of light 227. rods are have a (high/ low) sensitivity: high -function in dim light 228. cones have a (high/ low) sensitivity: low -function better in bright light 229. are there more rods or cones?: rods -20 rods for every 1 cone 230. where are rods located on the retina?: periphery 231. where are cones located on the retina?: center 232. what are intersegments?: -in photoreceptors -house mitochondria -generate ATP since these neurons need a lot of ATP because they are always working to generate vison 233. What is rhodopsin?: specific name for photopigment -sense light info 234. what is opsin?: protein component of a photopigment (rhodopsin) 16 / 28  Bio 108 Exam 2 Study online at https://quizlet.com/_cr8xb5 235. what is retinol?: vitamin component of a photopigment (rhodopsin) 236. what shape is retinal in the dark?: 11-cis-retinal (bent) 237. what shape is retinal in the light?: trans- retinal (straight) 238. what happens when retinal is straightened?: triggers events so that the light stimulus can be changed to an electrical stimulus so brain can have info about light 239. when does does retinal go back to its bent shape after its straightened? does it require energy?: when we no longer are receiving vison info yes it requires energy 240. where are rhodopsin containing pigments in the eye?: retina 241. what is the fova of the eye?: where there is the most cones in the center of the retina 242. what 5 places does light have to pass through to get to the retina?: 1) cornea 2) aqueous humor 3) pupil 4) lens 5) vitreous humor RETINA 243. what is the function of the cornea?: protect eye by keeping out dirt/ debris 244. what is the cornea surrounded by?: sclera 245. where is the cornea?: front of eye 246. what is the pupil?: round hole in the center of the iris muscle 247. what happens if light makes it though the cornea but hits the iris?: light bounces away 248. what is the iris?: smooth muscles controlled by the autonomic nervous system 249. where is the aqueous humor?: between cornea and iris 250. where is the pupil?: center of iris 17 / 28  Bio 108 Exam 2 Study online at https://quizlet.com/_cr8xb5 251. where is the iris?: around the pupil 252. what is the function of the iris?: change size of the pupil bigger- let more light in smaller- let less light in 253. where is the lens?: behind the pupil 254. where is the vitreous humor?: posterior cavity 255. where is the retina?: back of the eye 256. what is the purpose of anterior eye structures?: focus light in the retina so the rays get to the rhodopsin 257. where is the function of the cornea and lens together?: make sure light strikes the retina in the right way 258. where are the 3 places light bends when it enters the eye?: 1) cornea 2) entering the lens 3) leaving the lens 259. what are 2 things that can cause vison problems? why doe these cause problems?: 1) correa shape changing (happens overtime) 18 / 28  Bio 108 Exam 2 Study online at https://quizlet.com/_cr8xb5 2) lens shape is wrong light isn't hitting the retina perfectly 260. what does the ciliary muscle surround?: ciliary zonula 261. what is the function of the ciliary muscle?: change shape of the lens 262. why do we want to change the shape of the lens?: so light can hit photopig- ments perfectly 263. What is accomidation of the eye?: lens chaneing shape to see things more clearly 264. how does the lens change shape to see something far away?: it becomes flattened -bend light less 265. how does the lens change shape to see something close up?: it becomes more rounded -bend light more 266. when the ciliary muscle is relaxed what 3 things happen?: 1) muscles pulls away from the lens 2) zonule tightens 3) lens becomes flat 267. when the ciliary muscle is contracted, what 3 things happen?: 1) muscles pull closer to the lens 2) pulls closer to the zonule 3) lens becomes more round 268. explain myopia, what is making vison unclear? how is this corrected?: - -eye grows too long -focal point of light is in front of the retina/ photoreceptor cells -corrected by a concaved lens to bend light to see light clearer 269. explain hyperopia, what is making vison unclear? how is this corrected?- : -eye grows too short -focal point of light is behind the retina -corrected by a convex lens to bend light to see light clearer 270. what are the 3 neurons in the retina? starting at sensory: 1) photoreceptor 2) bipolar neuron 3) ganglion neuron 271. how many neurons does it take for vison info to get to the primary visual cortex?: 5 272. what is phototransduction?: turning a light stimulus into a graded potential (hyperpolarizing) with in the photoreceptor 273. explain the 6 steps phototransduction in the light: 1) retinal becomes trans-retinal 19 / 28  Bio 108 Exam 2 Study online at https://quizlet.com/_cr8xb5 2) G-protein is activated (transducin) 3) transducin activates a phosphodiesterase enzyme 4) phosphodiesterase cuts cyclic GMP to just GMP 5) cGMP levels fall 6) cations are blocked from going in HYPERPOLARIZATION (stops firing action potentials) 274. explain the 3 steps it takes for photoreceptor to become depolarized when there is no light stimulus: 1) a lot of cGMP is present to interact with receptors that allow cations (K+ and NA+) to flow in 2) photoreceptor becomes depolarized 3) photoreceptor fires action potentials 275. explain the 3 steps of why in the dark there are action potentials firing out of the photoreceptor but not in the bipolar cell: 1) rhodopsin is 11-cis-retinal keeping ionotropic receptors open 2) Na+ and K+ go in depolarizing it 3) the action potential releases a neurotransmitter that inhibits (IPSPs) the bipolar cell so it makes all the cells after that quite including the bipolar cell 276. explain the 7 steps of how bipolar cell and all cells after that wake up and send visual info to primary motor cortex when there is light present: 1) rhodopsin is trans-retinal closing ionotropic receptors 2) hyperpolarizes the photoreceptor 3) stops firing action potentials 4) no inhibitory neurotransmitter is released 5) bipolar cell is no longer inhibited and is firing action potentials which released excitatory neurotransmitter (EPSPs) 6) depolarizes ganglion cell 7) sends action potentials to the thalamus than to the cerebral cortex than primary motor cortex 277. what does the retina do when it carries light info to the primary visual cortex?: simplifies it 278. what does the visual association area make?: memory bank of all the things we see 279. what does the primary motor cortex do with the light info from the retina?: organizes it in a way where synapses make objects/ faces come to life 280. what is parallel processing?: 1 input making multiple parts of the brain work together in parallel -output isn't predictable ex: how someone reacts to the smell of peppermint 20 / 28  Bio 108 Exam 2 Study online at https://quizlet.com/_cr8xb5 281. what is serial processing?: -info flowing with no deviation -flows across a single pathway -outcome is predictable -neurons have a all or nothing effect 282. what is the outcome of serial processing?: fast, predictable, and always occurring movements 283. example of serial processing: reflexes 284. Are reflexes automatic?: yes 285. reflexes have a ______ input and _____ output: specific/ predictable 286. what is reflex arch?: neurons that are part of a reflex 287. 5 components of a reflex arch: 1) receptor receiving input 2) sensory neuron (brings afferent info into the CNS) 3) integration center 4) motor neuron (bring info efferently to PNS) 5) effector (synapse on muscle/ gland) 288. what is the integration center?: where the interneuron relays sensory info to a motor neuron 289. monosynaptic reflex: -1 synapse -no interneuron (only 2 neurons) 290. polysynaptic reflex: ->1 synapses -has interneuron 291. somatic reflex: reflex on skeletal muscle 292. visceral (autonomic) reflex: reflex happening on body organ we can't control (heart) 293. long reflex: reflex arc that includes the central nervous system 294. short reflex: reflex arc that does not include any components of the central nervous system 295. most common reflex test: patellar reflex... sore subject for mitch 296. what is a reflex test?: someway of testing structural integrity and function of the nervous system 297. 2 types of proprioceptors: 1. muscle spindles 2. tendon organs 298. where are muscle spindles?: skeletal muscles 299. what is the function of muscle spindles?: send length/stretch of muscle info to the cerebrum/ cerebellum 300. what is the effector of muscle spindles?: skeletal muscle 301. where is a tendon organ?: inside of a tendon 21 / 28  Bio 108 Exam 2 Study online at https://quizlet.com/_cr8xb5 302. what is the function of a tendon organ?: send info about muscle tension (long reflexes) to the cerebrum/ cerebellum 303. what is the effector of the tendon organ?: skeletal muscle 304. what stops you from overstretching?: tendon organ/ muscle spinals 305. What are extrafusal muscle fibers?: muscle fibers in skeletal muscle 306. what are intrafusal muscle fibers?: muscle fibers in the muscle spindle and connective tissue 307. efferent neurons sending info from extrafusal muscle fibers are called.....- : alpha motor neurons 308. efferent neurons sending info from intrafusal muscle fibers are called.....- : gamma motor neurons 309. what is the function of anulospiral nerve fibers?: -relay info about length of muscle -proprioceptor 310. the anulospiral nerve fibers ______ as the muscle contracts and ______ when the muscle relaxes: shorten/ lengthen 311. what is the function of flowerspray endings?: -relay degree of stretch of muscle to CNS -proprioceptor 312. muscle spinal will lengthen/ shorten with _______ fibers: extrafusal 313. how can the anulospiral nerve tell the CNS how long/short muscles are?: based on how often action potentials are being fired to the reflex arch 314. how is the flow of action potentials to a contracted muscle?: constant 315. how is the flow of action potentials to a lengthened muscle? why?: -faster -2x-3x faster than to a contracted muscle -many action potentials tell the muscle to relax so it won't tear 316. what kind of reflex is to the muscle a muscle being stretched telling it to shorten? monosynaptic or polysynaptic?: monosynaptic 22 / 28  Bio 108 Exam 2 Study online at https://quizlet.com/_cr8xb5 317. what kind of reflex is the antagonist muscle telling it to contract to prevent over stretching in main muscle? monosynaptic or polysynaptic?: polysynaptic 318. What is reciprocal inhibition?: when the antagonistic muscle contracts to relax the main muscle 319. explain the 6 steps of how patellar reflex occurs: 1) stimulus to the patellar ligament stretches the quad muscle (lengthening it) 2) anulosprial lengthens 3) increase action potentials firing in the proprioceptor 4) monosynaptic reflex causes quad to contract (happens through a alpha motor neuron that is synapsed on by the proprioceptor) 5) as quad contracts the leg kicks 6) reciprocal inhabitation in hamstring causing it to relax through the same proprio- ceptor (alpha motor neuron) inhibits the hamstring from contracting 320. what is reciprocal activation?: when the reflex is to lengthen muscle, the antagonist muscle contracts 321. the spinal cord is a ____ way conduction system: 2 way -ascending/ descending 322. what is the spinal cord protected by?: bone, meninges, and CSF 323. what is the function of spinal meninges?: protect the spinal cord 324. what is the difference between the cranial meninges dura matter and the spinal meninges dura matter?: spinal dura matter is single layered and not fused to verbal bones 325. what is in the epidural space above the spinal dura matter?: fat 326. what are the 2 layers below the spinal dura matter?: arachnoid and pia matter 327. where is the dorsal funiculus?: white matter on the dorsal side of the spinal cord 328. where is the ventral funiculus?: white matter on the ventral side of the spinal cord 329. where is the lateral funiculus?: white matter on the lateral part of the spinal cord 330. where is the dorsal horn?: grey matter on the dorsal side of the spinal cord 331. where is the ventral horn?: grey matter on the ventral side of the spinal cord 332. where is the lateral horn?: grey matter on the lateral portion of the spinal cord 23 / 28  Bio 108 Exam 2 Study online at https://quizlet.com/_cr8xb5 333. where is the dorsal root/ dorsal root ganglion?: coming off dorsal side of the spinal cord 334. What is the dorsal root ganglion?: where cell bodies of the dorsal horn are 335. what is the ventral root?: axons of motor neurons exit here 336. where is the ventral root?: anterior root of spinal cord 337. where is the dorsal median sulcus?: top of dorsal side of the spinal cord in the middle 338. where is the grey commissure?: middle part of the spinal cord 339. what is the grey commissure?: where we have axons extending contralater- ally from one side to the other 340. Where is the central canal?: center of spinal cord 341. what is in the central canal?: CSF 342. interneurons receiving somatic info tend to be located more ______ than one receiving visceral info: dorsally 343. motor neurons receiving visceral info are closer to the _____ horn than ones receiving somatic info, they tend to be in the _____ horn: lateral/ ventral 344. Where is the cervical enlargement?: larger part of the spinal cord by the neck 345. what does the cervical enlargement support?: arms -more neurons 346. where is the lumbar enlargement?: larger part of the spinal cord by the hips 347. what does the lumbar enlargement support?: legs 348. how may total spinal nerves are there?: 31 349. position of spinal nerves coincide with........: what they support 350. where is the forum magnum the start of?: spinal cord 24 / 28  Bio 108 Exam 2 Study online at https://quizlet.com/_cr8xb5 351. what are rootlets?: axons that haven't yet converged into a single nerve 352. What is the conus medullaris?: end of spinal cord 353. what are cauda equina?: collection of lower spinal nerves to support legs 354. what is the function of the autonomic nervous system?: involuntarily con- trol smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, glands and maintain homeostasis 355. What are the 2 divisions of the autonomic nervous system?: sympathetic and parasympathetic 356. What does the enteric nervous system do?: controls digestive system 357. what are 4 places the autonomic nervous system controls?: -skeletal muscle -smooth muscle -cardiac muscle -endocrine/ exocrine glands 358. what does the somatic nervous system control?: skeletal muscles 359. parasympathetic motor neurons function: -"park the car" -increase neurotransmission when resting and digesting -conserve energy 25 / 28  Bio 108 Exam 2 Study online at https://quizlet.com/_cr8xb5 360. sympathetic motor neurons function: -"speed up the car" -mobilizes body for action -times of stress 361. what 2 nerve fibers is the phrenic nerve composed of?: both somatic and autonomic nerve fibers 362. what is the function of the phrenic nerve?: controls diaphragm when breath- ing 363. when do autonomic neurons control the diaphragm?: when you aren't thinking about breathing (sleep) 364. when do somatic neurons control the diaphragm?: when you are voluntarily controlling your breathing rate/depth 365. What is dual innervation?: cells innervated by both sympathetic and parasympathetic neurons -both are always working, sometimes one is working harder 366. both branches of the autonomic nervous system send out nerves and innervate the same ______: organs 367. target organ: heart what are the parasympathetic effects?: decrease heart rate 368. target organ: heart what are the sympathetic effects?: increase rate and force of heart beat 369. target organ: salivary glands what are the parasympathetic effects?: stimulate saliva (hungry) 370. target organ: salivary glands what are the sympathetic effects?: inhibit salvation (stressed) 371. target organ: eye what are the parasympathetic effects?: contract pupil 372. target organ: eye what are the sympathetic effects?: dilate pupil 373. dual innervation allows for _______ ______: autonomic tone 374. what is autonomic tone?: -resting state of the autonomic nervous system where neither the sympathetic or parasympathetic division predominates -provides a homeostasis level -both branches are equally activated 375. 4 anatomic features of the autonomic nervous system: 1) 2 neurons in a chain (upper and lower motor neurons) 2) synapses are less spread out/ less differentiated 3) activity is coordinated in the brainstem, reticular formation, and spinal cord 4) broad functions are carried out by 3 neurotransmitters 26 / 28  Bio 108 Exam 2 Study online at https://quizlet.com/_cr8xb5 376. in the parasympathetic division, is the upper or lower motor neuron longer?: upper motor neuron 377. in the sympathetic division, is the upper or lower motor neuron longer?- : lower motor neuron 378. where is the upper motor neuron located?: soma is in the CNS 379. sympathetic division: where is the autonomic ganglion located?: closer to the spinal cord 380. parasympathetic division: where is the autonomic ganglion located?: - closer to the target cell 381. are upper or lower motor neurons myelinated?: upper motor neurons only 382. 1 motor neuron has multiple _____: varicosities 383. what are varicosities?: where there are multiple synapses from 1 neuron 384. what is the main neurotransmitter for the somatic nervous system?: AcH 385. what neurotransmitter is released into the automimic ganglion?: AcH 386. what neurotransmitter does the parasympathetic lower motor neuron release?: AcH 387. what 2 neurotransmitters does the sympathetic lower motor neuron re- lease?: epinephrin and norepinephrine 388. what are the 3 neurotransmitters the autonomic nervous system uses?: 1) acetylcholine 2) epinephrin 3) norepinephrine 389. how does the lower motor neuron get an action potential from the upper motor neuron?: 1) AcH binds to the cholinergic nicotinic receptors 2) Na+ goes in and K+ goes out 3) depolarizes lower motor neurons causing an action potential 390. what receptor is on the lower motor neurons that AcH bind to called?: - cholinergic nicotinic receptors 391. what receptors does AcH bind to when leaving the lower parasympathetic neuron?: muscgarnic receptors 392. how many types of muscgarnic receptors are there? why?: 5 that bring about different responses when AcH binds 393. what receptors does epinephrin and norepinephrine bind to when leaving the lower sympathetic neuron?: 1 of 4 adrenergic receptors 394. what kind of responses do the 4 adrenergic receptors have?: A1- excita- tory A2- inhibitory B1- excitatory B2- inhibitory 27 / 28  Bio 108 Exam 2 Study online at https://quizlet.com/_cr8xb5 395. what are the 4 adrenergic receptors?: a1, a2, b1, b2 396. what are the 4 adrenergic receptors responsible for/ what is their effect?- : A1- sweat glands- increase sweat production A2- digestive tract- inhibit digestion B1- cardiac muscle- increase heart rate B2- bladder- inhibit urge to pee 28 / 28